districts is by men who carry the chests slung one at each end of a bamboo, which rests across the shoulder. But if the tea is of superior quality, a single chest is fastened at the ends of two bamboos, and is thus carried upon the back of a man; the other ends of the bamboos project in front, and are tied together. By placing these ends upon the ground and raising them to a perpendicular position, the cooly is relieved of the weight of the chest as he stops to rest in ascending the steep mountain passes; and wherever he stops he sets the chest in this manner against the wall, never allowing it to be defaced nor the tea injured by the chest touching the ground. From the bohea countries to Canton the transportation is effected by a number of portages alternating with shipments in boats, occupying altogether from 6 weeks to 2 months. From the same region to Shanghai by similar means the distance of 620 miles is accomplished in about 28 days.-The soluble constituents of tea contained in its infusion consist of gum, grape sugar, a large proportion of tannin, a volatile oil, and a peculiar nitrogenized principle called theine, which is the same as that found in coffee and in the Paraguay tea or maté, or holly, of which an account has been given in the article CAFFEINE. The theine forms but a very small proportion of its substance, the largest quantity that has been separated not exceeding 6 per cent. Stenhouse rated its proportion in the teas of commerce at about 2 per cent. In the analyses of G. J. Mulder its proportion is doubtless underrated; these are as follows:

The Chinese also employ other methods of
adulteration, as intermixing other kinds of
leaves with those of the tea plant, such as leaves
of the ash, plum, &c. This too is practised
chiefly with the green teas; and they even
manufacture a spurious article, which they call
themselves lie tea, and so brand the chest con-
taining it, made up of the dust of tea and other
leaves, and sand, which by means of starch or
gum they cause to cohere in little masses; these
they paint and color with great skill to imitate
either black or green gunpowder tea. Lie tea
is also mixed with other teas of low quality,
the proportion being certified to by the Chinese
merchant who disposes of them. It may be
detected by the leaves not unfolding when
steeped in boiling water. It was stated in evi-
dence before the parliamentary committee in
1856, that the importations of lie tea into Eng-
land amounted to £400,000 or £500,000. From
other evidence presented to this committee, it
would appear that the English vie with the Chi-
nese in the variety and ingenuity of their adul-
terations of tea. They employ a greater number
of foreign leaves and of coloring matters, some
of which are much more dangerous from their
poisonous qualities than those used by the
Chinese. Some of these falsifications may be
readily detected by washing away the soluble
matters from a sample of the tea exposed to a
gentle stream of cold water, and also by burn-
ing another sample and comparing the weight
of its ash with that of teas of undoubted char-
acter. While the ash of genuine teas amounts
to from 5 to 6 per cent., that of adulterated teas
has been found of various weights up to 45.5
per cent. Another fraudulent practice is to
cause teas which have been once used and ex-
hausted of their virtue, to assume again the
appearance of fresh tea. This has been carried Chlorophyl
on in England by collecting the exhausted leaves
from hotels and coffee houses, and redrying
them, treated with gum water, in establish-
ments devoted to this business. The leaves
are then sold to be intermixed with genuine
teas, or they are artificially colored and glazed
to be sold as green tea. In order to communi-
cate an agreeable scent to tea, the Chinese mix
with some kinds the leaves of sweet-scented
flowers, such as chloranthus inconspicuus, olea
fragrans, and others. The flowers are dried,
powdered, and sprinkled over the tea, or the
fresh flowers are arranged in alternate layers
with the tea leaves, when both are roasted till
the flowers become crisp. In either case they
are finally removed by sifting. The tea farms
in China seldom produce more than 600 chests
of tea each. The crops are bought up by tea
merchants, who collect together from differ-
ent farms enough for 620 or 630 chests, which
they mix together, roast again, and then pack
in chests for transportation. The next mer-
chant who buys the tea puts upon the chests
some mark that is in good repute, and sends
them forward to the shipping ports, toward
which the transportation through some of the

The aroma and flavor and some of the effects of tea upon the nervous system are mainly due to the volatile oil. This is developed in the roasting and drying, and its effects are most strongly exhibited in new teas. Those persons whose business it is to inspect teas, which they do by tasting, and are known as tea tasters, are subject to frequent attacks of headache and giddiness, and paralysis is a common complaint with those employed in packing and unpacking chests of tea. Theine is regarded as lessening the waste of tissue, and consequently taking the place of other food. Tannin imparts to the tea its astringent taste and property, and causes it to exert a slightly constipating effect upon the bowels. When fully

now lost. The exportation of tea from China is from 3 ports only, Shanghai, Foochow, and Canton; and the principal portion of the exports to the United States is from the first named, the most northern of the 3 places. The countries which take nearly the whole of this product are Great Britain, the United States, Russia, and Holland. In 1852 the exportations were as follows: Great Britain, 65,137,200 lbs.; the United States, 34,334,000; Australia, 8,829,000; Holland, 3,000,000; India, 500,000; other places, 2,200,000. It is supposed that from 14,000,000 to 15,000,000 lbs. are annually sent overland to Russia. The trade with the United States first attained any importance in 1790, and up to the close of the year 1800 the imports averaged 2,500,000 lbs. per annum; for the next 12 years 3,350,000 lbs. ; and to the end of 1820 there was but little variation from this. From that time to the end of 1833 the consumption, ascertained by deducting the exports from the imports, averaged about 7,000,000 lbs. ; from that time to the close of 1841 the average annual consumption was 12,752,163 lbs. The consumption has been chiefly in the N. E. portion of the United States, tea being used exclusively in some of the most northern portions, the use of coffee gradually increasing toward the south, till in some parts of the southern states tea is entirely unknown. At the west also tea is less used than coffee. The following table presents the exports from China to the United States for the years named, as prepared by United States merchants in China, reckoning to July 1 of each year:

extracted by long continued steeping, it is then
very perceptible by the bitter taste which it
imparts to the tea. The glutinous matters are
lost with the leaves unless these are consumed
with the infusion after the practice of the
Japanese, who reduce the leaves to powder.
An addition of soda would cause more gluten
to appear in the infusion.--The virtues of tea
have been highly extolled from the time of its
earliest use as a beverage. Lo Yu, a learned
Chinese who lived in the dynasty of Tang,
A. D. 618 to 906, says of it: "It tempers the
spirits and harmonizes the mind; dispels lassi
tude and relieves fatigue; awakens thought
and prevents drowsiness; lightens or refreshes
the body, and clears the perceptive faculties."
These effects are true of tea taken in moderate
quantity, and its soothing influence is such that
it is frequently beneficial in inflammatory dis-
eases, and a strong infusion of tea relieves ner-
vous headache. But when taken in excess it
acts as a narcotic upon some constitutions, pro-
ducing nervous tremblings; and in inferior ani-
mals it has been known to produce paralysis.
Green tea is much more objectionable in this
respect than black.-The principal black teas
imported into the United States during the last
10 years, in the order of their relative quan-
tities, are oolong and ningyong, souchong and
congou, pouchong, orange pekoe, and pekoe.
The green are young hyson, gunpowder, im-
perial, hyson, twankey, and hyson skin. The
average net weight of a chest of tea is about 64
lbs., which is the weight of congou tea; pekoe
and hyson weigh usually 49 lbs., and bohea 138
lbs. The twankey, which is of the lowest qual-
ity, is largely used for mixing with better teas,
and is said to constitute of all the green teas
imported into Great Britain. Hyson skin is the
refuse of the finer hyson, and is largely pur-
chased by American merchants. Gunpowder is
so named from the granular appearance of the 1858-59.
leaves, which are rolled with particular care;
the Chinese name for it means pearl tea. Young
hyson is so named from the early season in which
its leaves are gathered; as very inferior teas
have been passed off for this, its reputation is

The imports, deliveries, and exports of tea in and from the United Kingdom were as follows for the years named:

botanical gardens, N. W. Provinces, India, in the "Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India" (vol. vi., Calcutta, 1848). TEA, PARAGUAY. See HOLLY. TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, in the United States, an assemblage of the teachers of the public schools of a county or part of a county, for a period of from 2 to 4 weeks, usually in the spring or autumn, for the purpose of receiving instruction in the art and methods of teaching, by lectures, conferences, and class drills, from experienced practical teachers. The instruction is free, and the families of the town or village where the institute is held usually receive those who attend as guests during its session. The first teachers' institute was organized by the Boston academy of music, in Aug. 1834, for "instruction in the methods of teaching music." The first application of it to the instruction of teachers of public schools was made by Mr. Henry Barnard at Hartford, Conn., where in the autumn of 1839 a class of 26 young men, and in the spring of 1840 a class of 16 young women, were taught. Institutes have assembled in New York since 1842 or 1843, and an appropriation was made for their support from the state treasury in 1847; in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Ohio since 1845; in Pennsylvania since 1851; and they were commenced about the same time in Indiana, New Hampshire, and New Jersey, and the other northern states, where legislative provision is generally made for defraying their expenses. The instruction in these temporary training schools is necessarily almost wholly oral; and as there is neither time nor occasion for lessons in the studies to be taught in the public schools, it is confined to an explanation and illustration of the best methods of teaching and governing schools. Those who conduct the institutes have usually had large experience in teaching, being often the principals or professors in the normal schools. The lectures are practical, and usually on some particular educational topic, such as physiology, grammar, physical geography, modes of discipline, &c. Conferences are held, in which the teachers relate their own experience of particular methods of instruction and discipline.

TEAK WOOD, a variety of timber much used in ship building and house carpentry in the East. It is the product of the tectona grandis and other species of large forest trees of the mountainous districts of the Malabar coast, of Burmah, and of various islands in the Indian seas. The tree of the common species grows to an immense size, the leaves from 12 to 24 inches long and from 8 to 16 inches broad, and furnishes single sticks of timber sometimes 50 feet long and 2 feet square. Of all the timber obtained in the East, this is esteemed most valuable. The wood is of light brown color, and works easily, although, containing much silicious matter, it is somewhat destructive to tools. Its weight to the cubic foot, when moderately seasoned, is from 45 to

52 lbs., as obtained from Malabar; but some inferior sorts from other places weigh only about 42 lbs. While the timber possesses the strength of oak, it is much more durable. It seasons quickly, shrinking very little, and is not liable to dry or wet rot, even if used directly from the forest. It contains a resinous oil, which protects it alike from decay and from the attacks of insects. The Burmans extract this oil by tapping the trees, and use it chiefly for protecting their pagodas from the weather; but the timber thus exhausted of its oil is injured as respects its durability. Teak is largely exported to Calcutta and Madras from Maulmain, obtained from the extensive forests in its vicinity, and much is consumed in. ship building in that locality. The teak of Malabar, which is esteemed the best, is extensively used in the ship yards at Bombay. At the great exhibition of 1851 in London, the naval department of the East India company contributed specimens of more than 70 species of teak. -The timber known as African teak, brought from the W. coast of Africa, belongs to an entirely different genus of trees, and is greatly inferior to the East Indian teak. It has been supposed to be a vitex, and by some to belong to the euphorbiaceœ.

TEAL, the common name of the small river ducks of the genera neṭtion (Kaup) and querquedula (Stephens), called sarcelles by the French. In the genus nettion the bill is as long as the head, straight, unusually narrow, with sides parallel, high as broad at the base, the depressed tip with a very narrow nail; wings moderate and pointed, 2d quill the longest, and the secondaries lengthened and pointed; tail moderate and wedge-shaped; toes united by a full web, the hind one short and slightly lobed. There are about 20 species, distributed all over the globe, though most numerous in the northern hemisphere; they are migratory, commencing their rapid flights in small flocks soon after sunset, resting by day on the surface of fresh water or the reedy shores of rivers and lakes, and feeding principally at night on aquatic insects and worms, seeds, and grains; the nest is made of a large mass of decayed vegetable matter lined with down, and the eggs are 8 to 10; they are highly esteemed as game. The European teal was domesticated by the Romans, and might be by the moderns with proper attention to its food and habits, making a very handsome and profitable addition to the poultry yard. The greenwinged teal (N. Carolinensis, Baird) is 14 inches long, 22 to 24 in alar extent, and the bill 1; the head and neck are chestnut, the chin black, and the forehead dusky; around the eyes and on the sides of the head is a broad rich green stripe, passing into a bluish black patch on the nape; below white, with rounded black spots on throat; lower neck, sides, and scapulars finely banded with black and grayish white; speculum on wings broad and rich green; a white crescent in front of bend of wings; under

tail coverts black, with a patch of buff white ing particles from their sensitive membrane. on each side; wing coverts plain olive gray; The lachrymal belong to the aggregated glands, in the female the under parts are white, and or those in which the vesicles or acini are arthe upper dark brown with gray edgings. It ranged in lobules; there is one situated at the occurs over the whole of North America, and upper, external, and anterior part of each oraccidentally in Europe; it migrates principally bit, in a depression of the frontal bone, in relaover the land, breeding from the great lakes to tion with the external rectus muscle, resting the fur countries; it runs well, is a good swim- behind on a fatty areolar tissue; each gland is mer and diver, and a very rapid and graceful of the size of a small almond, of reddish white flier; having a comparatively long neck, it color and flattened form, enveloped in a fibrofeeds while swimming, and, being choice in its cellular capsule, and receiving an artery, vein, selection of food, affords a delicious flesh, and nerve of the same name; the secretion is much superior, according to Audubon, to that poured out by 6 or 7 trunks opening within the of the canvas-back; it is not very shy; the upper lid. At the inner angle of the eyes, in eggs are 14 by 1 inches, much rounded, dull both lids, are 2 very narrow, always open aperyellowish with indistinct deeper tints. The tures, the lachrymal puncta, situated in the English teal (N. crecca, Kaup) differs from the middle of a slightly prominent tubercle, about above in having no white crescent in front of 1 lines from the inner junction of the lids; the bend of the wings; the elongated scapulars they are opposite each other, the lower turned are velvet black externally and creamy white up and the upper down, and both outward and internally; this has occasionally been observed backward. Through these openings the tears on the E. coast of the United States. In the are conveyed by the short lachrymal ducts in genus querquedula the bill widens a little to each lid to the lachrymal sac, situated at the the end, which is obtusely rounded, is higher inner angle of each eye, in the bony groove bethan broad at base, has a wider nail and the tween the lachrymal bone and the ascending lamellæ visible on the sides. There are about process of the superior maxillary; it is a small half a dozen species in North America, Europe, membranous sac, opening below into the nasal and Asia, with habits similar to those of the duct, which conveys the tears into the nose other genus. The blue-winged teal (Q. discors, beneath the inferior turbinated bone, explainSteph.) is 16 inches long, 24 or 25 in alar extent, ing why after a copious secretion of tears it with a bill of 17; the head and neck above becomes necessary to blow the nose. At the are plumbeous gray; top of head black; white inner angle of the lids, in front of the globe and crescent in front of eyes; under parts purplish behind the lachrymal points, is a small reddish gray, each feather spotted with black; fore tubercle, pyramidal with the summit turned part of back brownish with 2 narrow bands of forward and outward; this is the lachrymal capurplish gray; back behind and tail greenish runcle, and consists of a mass of small mucous brown; under tail coverts black; outer webs follicles, covered by the conjunctiva, which of some of the scapulars and the wing coverts forms in front and to the outside a semilunar bright blue; greater coverts tipped with white, fold, called the nictitating membrane; this is with grass-green speculum below them; bill rudimentary in man, but remarkably developed black; in the female the top of the head is in birds. The act of crying, generally accompabrown, chin and throat yellowish white, back nying an increased secretion of tears, as far as brown with paler edgings, under parts whitish the movements of respiration are concerned, with obscure brown spots, and the same blue is very nearly the same as that of laughing, and white in the wings as in the male. It is though occasioned by a contrary emotion; the found throughout eastern North America to expiratory muscles are in more or less violent the Rocky mountains, but not in Europe; it is convulsive movement, sending out the breath very abundant about the mouths of the Missis- in a series of jerks, accompanied by well known sippi in winter, and is less hardy than the sounds; in children the act is sometimes congreen-winged species; the flocks pass and re- tinued almost to the complete emptying of the pass many times over a place before alighting, chest of air, to the great dismay of parents, but and the glistening of their wings in the sun is the besoin de respirer is always stronger than like that of polished steel; it is easily kept in the convulsive muscular movements. Modercaptivity, thriving on coarse corn meal, and ate excitement, whether of joy, tenderness, or could be domesticated with a little care. This grief, increases greatly the quantity of the tears, species is replaced west of the Rocky moun- though the secretion is checked by violent emotains and on the Pacific coast by the red-breast- tions; in intense grief the tears do not flow, the ed teal (Q. cyanoptera, Baird), a larger bird, restoration of the secretion being a sign of of a general purplish chestnut color, without moderated sorrow, and itself affording relief by white on the head or tail; the feathers of the the resumption of nervous action previously flanks are uniform chestnut. held in abeyance by great mental depression. Considering their size, there are no other glands which ordinarily can so increase the amount of their secretion as the lachrymal; the quantity is sometimes very great, and very easily stimulated; the shedding of tears is also

TEARS, the limpid, colorless, slightly saline secretion of the lachrymal glands, continually poured out in quantity sufficient to bathe the surface of the eyes, to secure the easy and free motion of the lids, and to wash off any irritat