school. It is the seat of Urbana university, founded in 1850 by the New Jerusalem church, and having in 1861 8 professors and teachers and 21 students in the collegiate department; and of the Urbana collegiate institute, a female seminary under the charge of the United Presbyterian church, having a large and elegant edifice with extensive grounds and 6 teachers. URBINO (anc. Urbinum Hortense), a fortified city of Italy, capital of the province of Urbino e Pesaro, situated on a hill, 20 m. S. W. from Pesaro, and about the same distance from the Adriatic; pop. about 7,000. It is a walled town, and has a fine government house, formerly the ducal palace, containing a collection of sculptures and antiquities; the Palazzo Albani, a cathedral, and several churches and convents. It is the see of an archbishop, and has a university, a theological seminary, and an academy of sciences and literature. It has a large manufactory of pins, and 4 annual fairs. The university was founded in 1671, and in 1860 had 20 professors and 72 students.-Urbino is a city of considerable antiquity. Pliny and Tacitus both mention it, the latter as the place where Fabius Valens was put to death in A. D. 69. Numerous inscriptions still extant prove its importance at that period. In A. D. 538 it was besieged and taken by Belisarius. After that event it continued to be a place of note, and during the middle ages was the seat of a race of independent dukes. Raphael was born here, and his house is still preserved.

URBINO E PESARO, a province of the Marches, in the kingdom of Italy, formerly a legation of the Papal States, bounded N. by Forli, N. E. by the Adriatic, S. by Ancona, Macerata, and Perugia, and W. by Perugia and the Tuscan district of Arezzo; area, 1,358 sq. m.; pop. 257,751, about equally divided between the districts of Pesaro and Urbino. The surface is mountainous. The soil, especially in the valleys, is fertile, producing various sorts of grain, flax, hemp, the olive, and the vine. The principal rivers are the Metauro, Cesano, Foglia, and Marecchia. Horned cattle, sheep, swine, bees, and silkworms are extensively reared. The province is formed from the ancient duchy of Urbino, and occupies part of the old territory of Umbria. Capital, Urbino.

URCHIN FISH. See SEA PORCUPINE. URE, ANDREW, a Scottish chemist, born in Glasgow in 1778, died in London, Jan. 2, 1857. He was educated at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and, having taken the degree of M.D., was in 1802 appointed professor of chemistry and natural philosophy in the Andersonian institution at Glasgow. Upon the establishment of the astronomical observatory in Glasgow he was placed in charge of it, and took up his residence in the building. In 1818 appeared his first important work, a "Systematic Table of Materia Medica," with a dissertation on the action of medicines, followed in 1818 by a remarkable paper entitled "New Experimental Researches on some

of the leading Doctrines of Caloric," which was subsequently published in the "Philosophical Transactions." Within the next few years he published a "Dictionary of Chemistry" (1821), a translation of "Berthollet on Dyeing" (1822), a "System of Geology" (1829), and numerous papers on chemical subjects. In 1830 he removed to London, and was appointed analytical chemist to the board of customs, an occupation which suggested and supplied materials for his succeeding works. These comprise "The Philosophy of Manufactures" (1835), "The Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain compared with that of other countries" (1836), and his well known "Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines" (1839), which has passed through several editions in America and England, the last of which, enlarged and edited by Robert Hunt, was published in 1860 (3 vols. 8vo.). UREA. See URINE.

UREDO, a genus of entophytous fungi resembling heaps of colored dust, and escaping from the tissues of plants by the bursting of their epidermis. Their origin was for a long time a matter of much uncertainty. The subject has been lately studied with care by Tulasne, who proved them in many instances to be rudimentary forms of other fungi and imperfectly developed conditions. The uredos are very often injurious in agriculture, species being known to the farmers as bunt, smut, burnt ear, &c., when attacking the seeds of the cereals, or rust, red rag, red gum, &c., when found on the stems and leaves of grain and grasses. The subject is treated at considerable length by Burnett in his "Outlines of Botany" (London, 1835); by Prof. Henslow in the "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society" (vol. ii., London, 1841); and by Tulasne in Annales des sciences naturelles (3d series, Paris, 1854.) A treatise by A. C. Corda on "The Brand in Cereals," with figures of the species, has been translated for the "American Journal of Agriculture and Science," by E. Goodrich Smith, and separately published (Albany, N. Y., 1847). The several species of uredo in America, in common with like cryptogamic plants of low development of structure, are identical in many instances with those abroad.

URFÉ, HONORÉ D', a French author, born in Marseilles in 1567, died in Villefranche in 1625. He was descended from a noble family, and after leaving college entered at the head of a company of 50 men the army of Henry IV. On his return he found Diane de Château-Moraud, a rich and beautiful heiress of his district, to whom he had been attached in his youth, married to his elder brother Anne d'Urfé. This couple, after living together 20 years, were divorced by mutual consent, and in order to retain the property in the family Honoré sought and obtained the hand of Diane. The lady however was so passionately fond of hunting, that she kept a large number of dogs, whom she allowed in her sleeping apartments. The insupportable smell caused by these ani

mals led him to retire to a small estate near Nice in Piedmont, where he composed L'Astrée. The first part appeared in 1610, the second in 1612, and two more in 1618; and after the death of D'Urfé a conclusion compiled from his manuscripts was added by his secretary Baro. The work was imitated by numerous authors, and from it a great number of subjects for dramas and paintings were taken. Beside this, D'Urfé wrote La Syreine, avec d'autres pièces (1611 and 1618); Épitres morales (1598, 1603, and 1620); and La sylvanire, fable bocagère.

URFEY, THOMAS D'. See D'URFEY. URI, a canton of Switzerland, bounded N. by the canton of Schwyz, E. and S. E. by Glarus and Grisons, S. by Ticino, and W. by Valais, Bern, and Unterwalden; area, 418 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 14,761. It is divided into the districts of Uri and Urseren, and Altorf is the capital. The surface is exceedingly mountainous, many of the summits rising to an elevation of 8,000 feet above the sea, and several exceeding 10,000 feet. The best known, though by no means the most elevated summit, is that of St. Gothard, and the highest points are Gallenstock, Sustenhorn, Scheerhorn, Spannorter, Windgelle, Bristenstock, Urirothstock, and Mutthorn. The only practicable outlets from the canton are by the road to Italy, which leads over the pass of St. Gothard, 6,700 feet above the level of the sea, and by the lake of Lucerne. Some of the head streams of both the Rhine and Rhône have their rise in Uri; but the principal river is the Reuss, which rises on the S. side of Mt. St. Gothard, receives the greater part of the drainage of the canton, and flows into the lake of Lucerne after a N. course of 30 m., during which it descends 4,500 feet. The most extensive valley lies upon the banks of this stream. It is narrow and rugged about the head, but becomes wider and level toward its lower extremity. The climate is cold, and strong winds blow from the mountains with great violence. Some grain, rape, hemp. potatoes, and vegetables are cultivated in the lower grounds, and fruit, walnuts, and chestnuts are grown. The inhabitants speak German, are simple in their habits, and almost all Roman Catholics; few foreigners are found among them. The government is a pure democracy, and every male inhabitant over 20 years of age is entitled to vote for the principal officers. URIC ACID. See URINE.

URIM AND THUMMIM ("light and truth"), two Hebrew words, the application of which is disputed. According to one opinion, they denote the four rows of brilliant precious stones in the breastplate of the high priest, upon each of which was engraved the name of one of the sons of Jacob. When an appeal was made to God by the high priest in difficult cases, the divine answer was manifested in some way by means of this breastplate, or, in the opinion of some commentators, by an audible voice speaking to the priest arrayed in full pontificals. According to other critics, the Urim and Thum

mim were two images personifying revelation and truth placed between the folds of the breastplate. The first time they are mentioned in the Bible, they are referred to as things already familiar to the Israelites: "And thou shalt put in the breastplate of judgment the Urim and the Thummim." (Exod. xxviii. 30.) It is unknown when this oracular method of consulting God ceased. There is no instance of it in Scripture during the time of the first temple, and it certainly was not practised during that of the second. There is a saying among the Jews that God spoke to his people during the tabernacle by the Urim and Thummim, during the first temple by the prophets, and during the second by the Bath-Kol.

URINE, the excrementitious fluid secreted by the kidneys, by means of a structure described in the article KIDNEY, transmitted slowly but continuously by the ureters to the bladder, and there retained until the distention of the organ requires its evacuation. It is secreted from arterial blood, and expelled by the agency of the abdominal muscles assisted by the contraction of the walls of the bladder, the sphincter at its opening being relaxed during the act of micturition. Its quantity varies with the amount of water in the blood, which it regulates, also removing from the body solid matters in proportion to the waste of the tissues, and the surplus of azotized material in the system. The importance of this secretion is shown by the injurious effects arising from the retention of its elements in the blood, in uramia, as it has been called. On account of the ease with which this secretion may be collected, both in health and disease, and the facility with which its ingredients may be separated by chemistry, its nature, purposes, and alterations are very well known. Fresh, healthy human urine should be perfectly transparent, amber yellow, with a peculiar but not disagreeable odor, and a bitterish saline taste; it contains a very small amount of pavementepithelium cells and mucus-corpuscles, and has a well marked acid reaction; after a time it grows turbid, with a mucous sediment, unpleasant odor, and alkaline reaction from the formation of carbonate of ammonia and precipitation of the earthy carbonates; if turbid when first passed, it may be considered abnormal. The average amount, according to Prout, passed in 24 hours by a person who drinks no more than the wants of the system require, is about 30 oz. in summer and 40 oz. in winter. It is well known that the urinary and cutaneous secretions are complementary of each other, in regard to the quantity of fluid eliminated, one being increased while the other is diminished; cold, by checking the exhalation from the skin, increases the amount of urine secreted. The average specific gravity, taking the year round, according to the same authority, is about 1.020, and according to Simon 1.012. From the varying amount of azotized food and watery fluids habitually ingested, the proportion of solid

Extractive matter, ammonia salts, and chloride of sodium.

Alkaline sulphates.

Alkaline phosphates..

33.80 to 49.68 1.40 to 1.60

4.57 to 6.88

29.00 to 42.60 10.18 to 11.58 Phosphates of lime and magnesia.. 1.50 to 1.97 -The most important of the organic constituents of the urine is urea; this is due to the metamorphosis of the azotized components of the tissues (especially the muscular) and of the blood, and gives to the secretion its characteristic properties; the amount excreted in 24 hours in a child of 8 years is about 208 grains, in the adult female 295, in the adult male 433, and in the old man of 85 years 125 grains, the great proportion in children and the small in the aged depending respectively on the rapidity and on the slowness of the interstitial changes; it is usually increased in febrile diseases, where waste is rapid and supply small. Uric acid is the next most important of the organic products of the urine; its formation is probably anterior to that of urea; it is increased by azotized food, and diminished or converted into urea by exercise. Dr. Bence Jones has shown that there is no relation between the acidity of the urine and the absolute amount of uric acid which it may contain; this acid is sometimes in excess in febrile diseases. The acidity of the secretion in the healthy state depends on the presence of the acid phosphate of soda, though in disease free organic acids are present; it increases and diminishes inversely with the acidity of the stomach. The extractive matters, except such as are convertible into urea, are rich in carbon and poor in nitrogen. The alkaline phosphates are most abundant when, from disease or excessive use of the brain, there is a too great disintegration of the nervous tissue. The earthy phosphates, though in small proportion, are very important in reference to the precipitates they form, for which see CALCULI, GOUT, and GRAVEL. Tea and coffee diminish the amount of urea and phosphoric acid in the urine, by retarding the activity of the metamorphic processes; the waste under their stimulus being less, the demand for food is less, an important fact in a dietetic and therapeutic point of view; alcohol does the same, but by obstructing the oxidation of the excrementitious matters, and causing their retention in the blood; tobacco, also, retards the metamorphosis of the tissues, and upon this doubtless depends the instinctive craving for this article when once employed, enabling a man the better to withstand a short allowance of food. Alkalies and their carbonates accelerate metamorphosis, and thus increase the solids of the urine; diuretic medicines, which cause a larger amount of fluid to be passed off by the kidneys, do not necessarily increase, but often actually diminish, the quantity of solids thus excreted. Urine, or a fluid pre

.

senting its essential characters, may pass off by the gastric and intestinal mucous membrane, by the lachrymal, salivary, and mammary glands, by the ears, nose, skin, and even by serous membranes; these metastases are especially frequent in hysteria.-Space will not permit here any description of the diseases of the human urine, a subject of so great interest to the physician that many volumes have been devoted to it; some of the most important of them have been noticed in previous articles. When the secretion is very abundant, it may constitute either the symptom diuresis, or the disease diabetes; when painful, it is called dysuria; when suppressed, ischuria; and when drop by drop, with pain, burning, and spasm, strangury; in Bright's disease it is albuminous, whence this affection has been named albuminuria; in one form of diabetes, it is highly charged with sugar; when the secretion cannot be retained, the symptom is called incontinence; very frequently the cylindrical linings and the fibrinous moulds of the uriniferous tubes are detected in the fluid. Man being an omnivorous feeder, his urine differs considerably from that of purely carnivorous and purely herbivorous animals; even in him it varies much according to peculiarities of diet. In carnivora it is generally acid when discharged, becoming rapidly alkaline and ammoniacal; in herbivora it is alkaline when passed, and contains a large quantity of alkaline and earthy carbonates; in carnivora it contains about 7 per cent. of urea, is clear, bright yellow, and of a specific gravity of 1.059 to 1.076; in herbivora it is turbid when passed, from the alkaline carbonates, of somewhat lower specific gravity than in the preceding, with about 1 per cent. of urea, and hippuric acid per cent. (in the ox) to 1 per cent. (in the horse). In birds the urine is a thin paste, hardening by exposure, consisting principally of urate of ammonia, that of the carnivorous families containing a considerable amount of urea. serpents it is a white earthy mass, consisting of uric acid with potassa, soda, and ammonia; in the bullfrog, according to Dr. John Davy, its specific gravity is 1.003, and it contains urea and chloride of sodium; in a large land tortoise, according to Marchand, it was faintly acid, looking like pus, with 6.40 of urea and 17.25 of uric acid in 1,000 parts.-Beside the authors quoted above, the following may be mentioned as giving information of great value: Berzelius, Bright, Becquerel, Dumas, Liebig, Lehmann, Frerichs, Golding Bird, Bernard, Dalton, and Draper.

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URQUHART, DAVID, a British author and politician, born in Braclanwell, county of Cromarty, Scotland, in 1805. In his youth he spent several years upon the continent, and then entered the university of Oxford, where he devoted his attention chiefly to political economy and the oriental languages. In 1827 he visited Greece with Lord Cochrane, after the peace of Adrianople went to Constantino

ple, and in 1831 returned to England, publishing a remarkable work entitled "Observations on European Turkey," in which he attempted to prove that the Russian politics tended to the destruction of Turkey and the enfeeblement of other powers, especially of England, and that Turkey had within itself the elements of resistance and progress. Immediately afterward he made a long journey in Germany, Turkey, Persia, and other portions of Asia, with a view of studying the political and commercial influence of Russia. While in the East he published "Turkey and its Resources," and pamphlets entitled "England and Russia," "The Sultan Mahmoud," and "Mehemed Ali Pasha," which excited much attention by their asserted exposure of the designs of Russia. Returning to England, he labored constantly to impress his views both upon the king and the people, and in 1835 was made by Lord Palmerston secretary of legation to Constantinople. In consequence of differences of opinion with Lord Ponsonby, the British ambassador, he resigned and returned to England in 1836, and began a system of attacks upon Palmerston, whom he accused of a betrayal of British interests, and of Russian tendencies. During the following year he published "Spirit of the East" (London, 1838), "Exposition of the Affairs of Central Asia" (London, 1840), "Exposition of the Boundary Differences between Great Britain and the United States" (Glasgow, 1840), and other writings of temporary interest. When the oriental question threatened a breach between England and France, he went to Paris, and in the daily press constantly attacked the policy of the British minister, a course which injured him in his own country. While in Paris he published La crise, ou la France devant les quatre puissances (1840). Returning to England, he labored for some time ineffectually to get into parliament, but in 1847 was elected for Stafford. The political agitations which shortly afterward followed throughout Europe preventing any consideration of eastern questions, he undertook in 1848 a journey to Spain and northern Africa, and on his return published "The Pillars of Hercules, a Narrative of Travels in Spain and Morocco" (2 vols., London, 1850). In 1852 he was not reelected, but continued to labor none the less earnestly to diffuse his ideas that the English ministry had a secret understanding with Russia, and was bent upon the ruin of Turkey; and his conduct became so extravagant, that he was considered a monomaniac. His partisans are now very few, and he rarely appears in public life.

His latest works are: "Progress of Russia in the West, South, and North" (1853), and "Recent Events in the East" (1854).

URQUIZA, JUSTO JOSÉ DE, ex-president of the Argentine Confederation, born in the state of Entre Rios about 1800. He is of mixed Spanish and Indian blood, and during the war which raged in La Plata attached himself to the party of Rosas, rising to the rank of general VOL. XV.-54

of division. In 1840 he commanded the Argentine army which Rosas sent against Uruguay, from which his friend Oribe had been driven by Rivero. The latter finally suffered a complete defeat from Urquiza on March 28, 1845, in the battle of India Muerte, and the victorious general was rewarded with the governorship of Entre Rios. When in 1851 Rosas pretended to lay down the supreme power, Urquiza took him at his word, and a war was the consequence. The latter allied himself with Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, assembled an army of 30,000 men, crossed the Parana in Jan. 1852, routed the Argentine army at Monte Caseros Feb. 3, and by a coup d'état made himself provisional dictator of the Argentine republic. He called a new congress at Santa Fé in August, which was to take definite steps for the settlement of the country. A revolution in Buenos Ayres in the mean time was succeeded by a counter revolution, with the aid of which he began the siege of Buenos Ayres. The defence was maintained with vigor, and by the desertion of the squadron enforcing the blockade, he was at last forced to retire. In March, 1854, he was elected for 6 years president of the 13 other states composing the union; and he employed his power in an enlightened manner, reëstablishing commerce and navigation, and declaring the Parana, the Paraguay, and the Plata free to foreign powers. against Buenos Ayres was continued. In 1859 he mediated between the United States and the republic of Paraguay, on occasion of the La Plata naval expedition, and toward the close of that year also succeeded in bringing back the state of Buenos Ayres into the Argentine Confederation. In the following year he was succeeded in the presidency by Dr. Santiago Derqui, under whom he is now (1862) honorary commander-in-chief of the army and navy. URSA MAJOR. See BEAR, GREAT.

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The war

URSINUS, FULVIUS, an Italian scholar, born Rome, Dec. 2, 1529, died there, May 18, 1600. He was an illegitimate son of a commander of the order of Malta, and rose to be a canon in the church of St. John Lateran. He was librarian successively to Cardinal Rainutius and Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and received an annual pension of 200 ducats. His works are very numerous, and consist of commentaries on and editions of the ancient writers, and dissertations on antiquarian subjects.

URSINUS, ZACHARIAS, a German theologian, born in Breslau, July 18, 1534, died in Neustadt, March 6, 1583. He was educated at Wittenberg, early gained the friendship of Melanchthon, went with him to Worms, and after studying at Paris returned to Wittenberg, where in 1558 he was rector of the Elizabeth gymnasium. On account of his views in regard to baptism and the Lord's supper, he became involved in controversies with the Lutheran divines, and was called the sacramentarian. In 1560 he resigned on account of these disputes, and went to Zürich, and thence

to Heidelberg, where he became a professor in the collegium sapientiæ. In 1562, by order of the elector palatine, he drew up the celebrated Heidelberg catechism, which the German Calvinists afterward adopted as the exposition of their creed. Ursinus was forced to write two defences of it, one against the Lutheran divines, and the other against the representations of the princes of the empire. He was subsequently employed in various offices by the elector, which he was obliged to give up on the death of the latter in 1577, the new elector being a strong Lutheran. He then retired to Neustadt, and taught theology and logic in the gymnasium of that city. Some of his works were translated into English. The best edition is that of Heidelberg (3 vols. fol., 1612). URSULA, a saint of the Roman Catholic. church, and, according to the legend, a daughter of a Christian prince of Britain. Having been demanded in marriage by a pagan prince, and fearing by a refusal to bring ruin upon her parents and country, she seemingly consented, but obtained a delay of 3 years, and a grant of 11 triremes and 10 noble companions, each as well as herself attended by 1,000, virgins. She passed the 3 years with her virgins in nautical exercises; and when the day fixed for her marriage arrived, a sudden wind arose at their prayer, and wafted them to the mouth of the Rhine, and thence to Basel. Here they left their vessels, and made on foot a pilgrimage to Rome. On their return they fell in unexpectedly at Cologne with an army of Huns, by whom they were massacred, Ursula having refused an offer of marriage from the prince. Their corpses were buried by the people of Cologne, and a church was afterward erected in their honor, in which bones supposed to be those of Ursula and her companions are still exhibited. The first traces of this legend, which was gradually enlarged, are met with in the 9th century.

URSULINES, a monastic order in the Roman Catholic church, founded in 1537 by Angela Merici of Brescia (canonized May 24, 1807). The foundress designed it to be only a religious association or sisterhood for nursing the sick, supporting the poor, and gratuitously instructing poor girls. Every member of the association was to be permitted to remain in the bosom of her family, and the rule might be changed according to the exigency of circumstances. Soon after the death of Angela Merici the wearing of a common dress was introduced, and 30 years later the association began to spread beyond the diocese of Brescia into other parts of Italy. Gradually the members began in many places to live together in one house, to choose superiors, and to take simple vows; in this case they assumed the name of Congregate Ursulines. The order of "Ursuline nuns," which adopted the rule of St. Augustine, and took solemn vows, was first organized in 1604 by Madeleine de Ste. Beuve at Paris, and confirmed by the pope and king in 1612. In a short time this congrega

tion of Paris counted in France 45 houses. Other French congregations were founded at Bordeaux (1617), Dijon (1619), Lyons (1620), and elsewhere. All the Ursuline convents are placed under the jurisdiction of the diocesan bishop, and their mutual coherence is so loose, that many convents do not even know to which of the numerous congregations they belong. They have not abandoned the primary object of the original association, the nursing of the sick and the poor; but they are now mainly devoted to the instruction of girls. In 1860 they had 16 houses in Italy, 410 in France, 21 in Belgium and Holland, 37 in Germany, 2 in Switzerland, 8 in Hungary and Transylvania, 1 in Greece, 7 in the British islands, 2 in Spain, 1 in Prussian Poland, 1 in Algeria, 1 in Guiana, and 17 in North America, viz.: at Morrisania, near New York; Cleveland, Toledo, Fayetteville, and Ohio City, O.; Springfield and Alton, Ill.; Columbia, S. C.; Savannah and Augusta, Ga.; New Orleans, La.; San Antonio and Galveston, Tex.; Louisville, Ky.; St. Louis, Mo.; and at Quebec and Trois Rivières, Canada.

URUGUAY, or BANDA ORIENTAL DEL URUGUAY, a republic of South America, bounded N. and N. E. by Brazil, E. and S. E. by the Atlantic ocean, S. by the Rio de la Plata, and W. by the Uruguay, these two rivers separating it from the Argentine Confederation. It lies between lat. 30° 5' and 34° 56' S., and long. 53° 10′ and 58° 20′ W.; extreme length 350 m., breadth 320 m.; area, 72,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1859, 217,429. It is divided into 13 departments, viz., Montevideo, Guadalupe (formerly Canelones), San José, Florida, Colonia del Sacramento, Soriano, Paysandu, Salto, Tacuarembo, Cerro Largo, Maldonado, Minas, and Durazno. The chief towns are Montevideo, the capital, Maldonado, and Colonia del Santo Sacramento. To the N. of Cape Santa Maria the coast is low and sandy, but S. and W. of it and on the estuary of the Rio de la Plata it is more bold and broken, having several fine bays and harbors. A few small islands lie off the shore, the largest of which is about 2 m. in circumference. The most important streams of the interior are the Rio Negro and its numerous tributaries, and the Arapey, Daiman, Yaguaron, and Sebollati. In the E. part of the country there are two lakes, the largest of which lies partly in Brazil. In the neighborhood of these lakes a low sandy tract extends inland for about 50 m.; but the greater part of the surface consists of an elevated table land penetrated by many fertile valleys along the S. coast. The surface of this table land consists of extensive plains traversed by occasional ranges of low hills, the whole being almost destitute of trees. Potters' earth and umber are found, copper ore is procured near Cape Maria, and mines of gold and silver are said to have been formerly worked. The climate is remarkably mild and healthy, but during the winter months a good deal of rain falls in the