command of the home squadron and of the naval station at Philadelphia. He has also rendered important services in the organization of the navy, and submitted to the navy department at different times valuable papers on the subject. In 1857 he was placed upon the reserved list of the navy, his advanced age, in the opinion of the board appointed under the act of congress of Jan. 16 of that year, leaving them no discretion in his case; but in March, 1859, he was placed upon the active list by special legislation under a new commission as senior flag officer. He was recently at his own request relieved from the command of the navy yard at Philadelphia, and now (1862) resides upon his estate at Bordentown, N. J.

STEWART, DUGALD, a Scottish metaphysician, born in Edinburgh, Nov. 22, 1753, died there, June 11, 1828. The son of Dr. Matthew Stewart, a clergyman and mathematical professor, he was educated at the high school and university of his native city, attracted notice by his taste and capacity for purely philosophical studies, heard the lectures of Reid at Glasgow during one term (1771–2), was recalled to Edinburgh to act as his father's substitute in the charge of the mathematical classes, and was formally elected conjoint professor as soon as he had completed his 21st year. For several years he was prominent in the weekly debates of the speculative society, before which he also read essays on philosophical subjects. He conducted the class in moral philosophy for one session (1778-'9), during the absence of Prof. Ferguson, upon whose resignation in 1785 he was elected his successor; and as a lecturer in this department he enjoyed the highest reputation during the next 24 years. "Probably no modern," says Mackintosh, ever exceeded him in that species of eloquence which springs from susceptibility to literary beauty and moral excellence; which neither obscures science by prodigal ornament, nor disturbs the serenity of patient attention; but, though it rather calms and soothes the feelings, yet exalts the genius, and insensibly inspires a reasonable enthusiasm for whatever is good and fair." Lord Cockburn describes him as (6 one of the greatest of didactic orators. Had he lived in ancient times, his memory would have descended to us as that of one of the finest of the old eloquent sages." "All the years I remained about Edinburgh," says James Mill, "I used, as often as I could, to steal into Mr. Stewart's class to hear a lecture, which was always a high treat. I have heard Pitt and Fox deliver some of their most admired speeches, but I never heard any thing nearly so eloquent as some of the lectures of Prof. Stewart.' It was his custom to speak from notes, not to read from full copy, a method suited to his peculiar powers, since it allowed scope to the imagination and the feelings. His aim was always moral and practical more than speculative, to portray ideal perfection and advance the harmonious

culture of all the faculties, intellectual, moral, and sensitive, rather than to teach definite solutions of intellectual problems; and his lectures therefore proceeded from psychology to theories of character and manners, life and literature, taste and the arts, politics and natural theology. The prominence which he assigned to the last subject, as the highest branch of metaphysics, was designed, as he explained, to resist the prevalent sceptical tendencies of the era of the French revolution. From the beginning he gave lectures on the theory of government as a part of the course on moral philosophy, and in 1800 he first delivered a special course on the new science of political economy. He showed no marked advances beyond the doctrines of the "Wealth of Nations," but made modifications and new applications, and had the courage to canvass fundamental questions and to maintain liberal opinions before the youth of Great Britain at a time when hostility to revolutionary tendencies prejudiced all political speculation. He did not appear as an author till 1792, when he published the first volume of "Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind." In the following year he published his "Outlines of Moral Philosophy," and read before the royal society an account of the life and writings of Adam Smith, which was printed in the "Transactions," and was followed by his biographies of Dr. Robertson (1796) and Dr. Reid (1802). Nothing else appeared from his pen till the publication of the "Philosophical Essays" in 1810, though in this interval he prepared the matter of all his other writings, with a single exception. In 1806, on the accession of a whig administration, the sinecure office of gazette writer of Scotland was created for him, to which the salary of £300 per annum was attached. He accompanied in that year Lord Lauderdale on his mission to Paris. His health was failing, when in 1809 it received a severe blow by the death of his younger son, and in the following year he was obliged to retire from active duty as a professor, his successor being Dr. Thomas Brown. To divert his thoughts from his affliction, he interrupted his more elaborate work on the mind for the easier task of preparing the volume of "Philosophical Essays," which reached 3 editions in 7 years. He had meantime removed to Kinneil house, on the shore of the frith of Forth, 20 miles from Edinburgh, where he passed the remainder of his life. From this retreat he sent forth in succession the second volume of the "Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind" (1814); a preliminary dissertation to the supplement of the "Encyclopædia Britannica," entitled "A General View of the Progress of Metaphysical, Ethical, and Political Science since the Revival of Letters" (part i., 1815; part ii., 1821); the third volume of the "Elements" (1827); and the "Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers" (1828), which was completed only a few weeks before his death. He had been

struck with paralysis in 1822; but though the malady deprived him of the power of speech and of the use of his right hand, it did not impair the vigor or activity of his mind, and by the aid of his daughter as an amanuensis he continued his literary studies and exertion, until a fresh paralytic shock which soon terminated fatally. A disciple of Reid, adhering to the traditions of the Scottish school, and remarkable rather as an eloquent and elegant writer than as a profound thinker, he did not even reduce to a system the theories of his predecessors; but he rendered them attractive by profuse and exquisite illustrations, and made important improvements in phraseology and classification, especially by proposing the "fundamental laws of human thought or belief" instead of the "instinct" or common sense" of his master. His collected works were edited by Sir William Hamilton (10 vols., Edinburgh, 1854-'8). His lectures on political economy were first published in this edition. The last volume contains a memoir by John Veitch, with selections from his correspondence.

STEWART, JOHN, an English traveller, born in London in the first half of the 18th century, died there in 1822. He went to Madras in 1763, in the civil service of the East India company, but at the end of two years resigned his office and commenced a series of pedestrian tours through Hindostan, Persia, Nubia, and Abyssinia, in the course of which he was at different times in the service of the nabob of Arcot and of Hyder Ali. He next walked to Europe by the way of the Arabian desert; and having perambulated every part of Great Britain, he crossed the Atlantic and visited on foot many parts of the United States. The last 10 years of his life were passed in London.

STEWART, MATTHEW, a Scottish clergyman and mathematician, father of Dugald Stewart, born at Rothesay, in the isle of Bute, in 1717, died in Ayrshire, Jan. 23, 1785. He was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh, and entered the church. The favorite pupil of Simson, he assisted his master in investigating the porisms of Euclid, and, pursuing the same subject, discovered a series of ingenious and curious propositions, published under the title of "General Theorems" (1746). This work caused him to be elected the successor of Maclaurin in the mathematical chair of the university of Edinburgh in 1747, which position he held till 1772. He retired 3 years later to an estate in Ayrshire. His aim as a mathematician was to cherish the forms of ancient demonstration even for such problems as the algebraic calculus alone had been thought able to resolve. Thus he solved Kepler's problem by the methods of the ancients (1756). His other publications were "Four Tracts, Physical and Mathematical" (1761), and an "Essay on the Sun's Distance" (1763), in which he adhered to geometric simplicity, but stopped far short of the results since attained in physical astronomy. VOL. XV.—7

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STEWART, ROBERT HENRY, MARQUIS OF LONDONDERRY. See CASTLEREAGH.

STEYER, or STEIER, a town and the capital of the circle of Traun in Upper Austria, 19 m. S. E. from Lintz, at the confluence of the Steyer and Enns; pop. about 11,000. The town proper stands between the two rivers, surrounded by crenellated walls flanked with towers; there are two suburbs on the opposite shores of the Enns and Steyer, each connected with the town by a bridge. Steyer is largely engaged in the manufacture of cutlery and hardware, and is often called the Austrian Sheffield.

STICKLEBACK, the popular name of the acanthopterous fishes of the mailed-cheeked family or sclerogenidæ, and genus gasterosteus (Linn.). They are also called banstickles, and are the épinoches of the French. Most of the species are found in fresh water, and are from 2 to 3 inches long; the sides are more or less protected by bony plates, the other parts being without scales; very small and crowded teeth on the jaws, none on the palate; branchiostegal rays 3; tail keeled on both sides; ventrals abdominal, reduced to a strong spine, used as a weapon, and 1 or 2 soft rays; free spines, from 3 to 15 in front of the dorsal, which is supported by soft rays; bones of the pelvis large, forming an abdominal sternum. They are very active, pugnacious, and voracious fishes, feeding on aquatic insects and worms, and the fry of other fish, in the latter way often doing great mischief in fish preserves; they sometimes spring entirely out of water. They are best known, however, for the parental care which the males take of the eggs and offspring; though Aristotle knew, 22 centuries ago, that some species of fish make nests for the reception of their spawn, it is only within the last 20 years that the fact has been generally admitted by naturalists. They breed in summer, and may be conveniently watched in aquaria, making and guarding their nests and protecting the young fry; the males are the builders, and at this season have the throat carmine red and the eyes brilliant bluish green, the other parts above being ashy green and the abdomen silvery and translucent. The nest is made of delicate vegetable fibres, matted into an irregular circular mass cemented by mucus from the body, an inch or more in diameter, with the entrance near the centre; when the nest is prepared the female is enticed or driven in, and there deposits her eggs, which are fecundated by the male; the latter remains constantly on guard, swimming in the neighborhood, driving away intruders with great ferocity, frequently putting in his head to see if all is right, and fanning the water with the pectorals and caudal to secure free circulation and ventilation for the eggs. They are frequently seen shaking up the eggs, and carrying away impurities in the mouth; the young are hatched in 2 or 3 weeks; any of the small fry getting outside of the nest are instantly seized in the mouth of the parent and put back; there

are about 40 young to a nest, and if any escape far beyond its protection they are eagerly devoured by other fish of the same species always on the watch. This fish takes as good care of its young as does the hen of her chickens; for interesting details on its nidification see "Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 2d series, vol. x., pp. 241–’8 and 276-'80 (London, 1852). The common European species (G. aculeatus, Linn.; since separated into 3 by Cuvier) has 3 spines in front of the dorsal, and is found in almost every pool and rivulet in Great Britain; in some years it has been so abundant in Lincolnshire as to be used for manure. The G. spinachia (Linn.) has 14 or 15 free spinous rays on the back, and has an elongated head and body; it is a marine species, found in the northern seas of Europe. The best known of the many species in the United States are the 2-spined stickleback (G. biaculeatus, Mitch.), which is found from Labrador to New York, 2 inches long, olive green above, yellowish green on sides, with 2 distant spines on the back and a 3d near the dorsal; and the 4-spined stickleback (G. quadracus, Mitch.), of the Massachusetts and New York coasts. Other species have 8 to 10 spines, and the males in all assume the red tint in the breeding season, both in salt and fresh water.

STICKNEY, SARAH. See ELLIS, WILLIAM. STIEGLITZ, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG, a German writer upon architecture, born in Leipsic, Dec. 12, 1756, died there, July 17, 1836. He was educated for the legal profession, but devoted himself chiefly to architectural and antiquarian studies, and published treatises on architecture (1786), on the use of the grotesque and arabesque (1792), and a history of the architecture of the ancients (1792). His most important works are: Encyklopädie der Baukunst der Alten (5 vols., Leipsic, 1792-'8); Zeichnungen aus der schönen Baukunst (1801), containing engravings of select specimens of modern architecture; Ueber altdeutsche Baukunst (1820), which contributed to diffuse and direct a taste for medieval art; and a valuable Geschichte der Baukunst vom frühesten Alterthume bis in die neuesten Zeiten (Nuremberg, 1827). He also published poems and dissertations on literary and antiquarian subjects, and contributed to journals and to Ersch and Gruber's Encyklopädie.

STIEGLITZ, HEINRICH, a German poet, born at Arolsen in 1803, died in Venice, Aug. 24, 1849. He completed his studies at Berlin, where in 1828 he became librarian. He married, taught in the gymnasium, published poems with moderate success, and became morbidly melancholy. His wife, who was thought to be a woman of genius, eager for his fame as a poet, and believing that only a great sorrow could restore his mind to health and activity, committed suicide in 1834, after an excursion with him in Russia. Her letters and diary were collected by Mundt in Charlotte Stieglitz, ein Denkmal (Berlin, 1835). Her death had

not the effect which she anticipated, and from that time he is stated to have travelled hurriedly, as if accursed, from city to city, publishing occasional poems. His best productions are: Bilder des Orients (4 vols., Leipsic, 1831– '3); Stimmen der Zeit in Liedern (2d ed., 1834); and Das Dionysusfest (Berlin, 1836).

STIGMARIA. See COAL PLANTS.

STILES, EZRA, D.D., an American clergyman, born at North Haven, Conn., Dec. 10, 1727, died in New Haven, May 12, 1795. He was graduated at Yale college in 1746, and was a tutor there from 1749 to 1755. Dr. Franklin having sent an electrical apparatus to Yale college, Mr. Stiles, with one of his fellow tutors, entered with great zeal upon this then new field of philosophical investigation, and performed the first electrical experiments ever made in New England. At the same time he was pursuing the study of theology, and commenced preaching in June, 1749. In April, 1750, he visited the Housatonic tribe of Indians at Stockbridge, and preached among them so acceptably that he was earnestly solicited by the society for propagating the gospel among the Indians to take charge of the mission there, but his imperfect health obliged him to decline the proposal. He then studied law, in 1753 was admitted to the bar, and practised the profession at New Haven for the two following years. In Feb. 1755, he pronounced a Latin oration in honor of Dr. Franklin, on occasion of his visiting New Haven, and was from that time in intimate relations with him till they were terminated by death. In 1756 he became pastor of the 2d church in Newport, R. I., and during his residence there devoted himself assiduously to his professional duties, and found time also for literary and scientific investigations, corresponding with learned men in almost every part of the world. In 1767 he began the study of the Hebrew and other oriental languages, and pursued it with great avidity. His congregation at Newport being entirely broken up by the British occupation of the place, in May, 1777, he removed to Portsmouth, N. H., to become pastor of the North church. In September following he was elected president of Yale college, and shortly after professor of ecclesiastical history in connection with the presidency, and in June, 1778, entered on his official duties. After the decease of Professor Daggett in 1780, he discharged the duties of professor of divinity, beside which he gave each week one or two dissertations on some philosophical or astronomical subject. His labors for the college were intense and uninterrupted during the residue of his life. He published a funeral oration in Latin on Governor Law (1751); a Latin oration on his induction to his office as president (1778); an "Account of the Settlement of Bristol" (1785); "History of three of the Judges of Charles I." (1795); and 5 occasional sermons. His life has been written by James L. Kingsley, in Sparks's "American Biography," 1st series, vol. vi.

STILICHO, FLAVIUS, a Roman general, assassinated Aug. 23, A. D. 408. He was the son of a Vandal officer of the cavalry under Valens, rose to high rank during the reign of Theodosius, by whom he was sent in 384 to Persia to ratify a treaty with the monarch of that country, was rewarded for his services on that occasion with the hand of Serena, the niece and adopted daughter of Theodosius, and soon became master-general of all the cavalry and infantry of the western empire. Jealousy sprang up between him and Rufinus, on whom Theodosius conferred the government of the East, which soon ripened into intense hatred. In 394 Stilicho became governor of the West, as guardian of Honorius, whom Theodosius had proclaimed Augustus; and when Theodosius died in 395, leaving to Honorius the empire of the West, and to Arcadius that of the East, Stilicho immediately passed the Alps in the depth of winter, spread terror among the barbarians by his bold and rapid operations, and having in a single summer established a firm peace on the border, returned to Milan, and prepared to march in person to Constantinople, ostensibly against Alaric and to lead back the eastern legions, but really to break the power of Rufinus. Being met near Thessalonica by a message from the Byzantine court that his nearer approach would be considered an act of hostility, he went no further, but engaged Gainas, the leader of the Gothic allies of Arcadius, to put Rufinus to death, which he accomplished in Nov. 395. Stilicho, however, gained little by this proceeding, as Arcadius fell into the hands of the eunuch Eutropius and Gainas, both of whom became bitterly hostile to himself. Several attempts were made to assassinate him, and the senate of Constantinople issued a decree declaring him an enemy of the republic, and confiscating his possessions in the East. Stilicho, who did not desire to involve the empire in civil war, made no effort to interfere with the ministers of Arcadius. In 396 Alaric ravaged the northern parts of Greece, and penetrated into the Peloponnesus. Stilicho at the head of a powerful army sailed from Italy to chastise the invaders; but Alaric escaped into Epirus, of which he took possession, and concluded a treaty with the ministers of Arcadius, by which he was made master-general of the province of Illyricum. Stilicho retired to Italy, where in 398 a marriage was celebrated between his daughter Maria and Honorius. In 400 Alaric invaded Italy, and Honorius was only prevented from flying with the court to Gaul by Stilicho, who hastened to collect his scattered troops from Rhætia, Gaul, and Germany, while Alaric seems to have been delayed by the siege of Aquileia, and to have returned to the Danube for reënforcements. In 403 that leader besieged Milan, from which the emperor fled, and the garrison was reduced to the last extremity when the rapid approach of Stilicho changed the position of the contending parties. Alaric was attacked in his camp at Pollentia,

and after a bloody battle was defeated, and again soon after under the walls of Verona. Alaric now departed from Italy, and Stilicho in 404 received the honor of a triumph in Rome. Intrigues were still carried on against him in the Byzantine court, and he now formed an alliance with his late enemy against the emperor of the East. His preparations, however, were disturbed by the invasion of Italy in 405 by Radagaisus, at the head of a mixed multitude of Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, Alani, and Goths. But while they were besieging Florence, Stilicho cut off their communications and supplies by strong lines of circumvallation, and hunger and disease forced them to capitulate. Radagaisus was put to death, and his men were sold as slaves; but the other portion of this horde, which had not entered Italy, ravaged Gaul, from which the garrisons had been withdrawn, and which Stilicho, intent chiefly on the preservation of Italy, was obliged to leave to its fate. Meanwhile Alaric had become impatient of the delay, and marching to Æmona on the borders of Italy, sent to the emperor of the West a demand for the promised subsidies. The influence of Stilicho secured to the Gothic king the payment of 4,000 pounds of gold; but a large party were indignant at his supposed partiality for the barbarians, and his power at court was also secretly undermined by the arts of the eunuch Olympius, whom he himself had introduced into the imperial palace. The latter represented to Honorius that he was without authority in his own kingdom, and that his death was meditated by Stilicho, who designed placing the imperial crown upon the head of his son Eucherius. On the death of Arcadius in May, 408, Honorius proposed to visit Constantinople as the guardian of Theodosius, the infant son of that emperor. From this project he was diverted, but he could not be dissuaded from showing himself to the camp at Pavia, filled with Roman troops and enemies of Stilicho. Immediately after his arrival there, through the agency of Olympius, the friends of Stilicho, some of the most illustrious officers of the empire, were murdered. Stilicho was in the camp of the barbarian allies at Bologna, and immediately called a council of his friends, who demanded to be led against the murderers. But he hesitated, and his friends, indignant at his want of resolution, left him to his fate. An unsuccessful attempt to assassinate him was made by Sarus, a Goth, but he succeeded in escaping, and threw himself into the hands of his enemies in Ravenna, and took refuge in a church. From this sanctuary he was led out, and no sooner had he passed the threshold than he was slain by Count Heraclian at the head of a troop of soldiers. His family and friends were persecuted, and many of them put to death, and his own name was branded with the title of public enemy, and his estate confiscated. His qualities and services have been celebrated by the poet Claudian.

STILLING, JUNG. See JUNG-STILLING.

STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD, an English author and prelate, born in Cranbourn, Dorset, April 17, 1635, died in London, March 27, 1699. He was educated at St. John's college, Cambridge, at the age of 18 obtained a fellowship, and in 1657 was presented to the rectory of Sutton. Subsequently he became chaplain in ordinary to Charles II., and dean of St. Paul's, and in 1689 bishop of Worcester. His first work, "Irenicum, or the Divine Right of particular Forms of Church Government Examined" (1659), was distinguished by a toleration inclining, as the high church party thought, toward Presbyterianism, and which he subsequently confessed "showed his youth and want of due consideration." His views however soon took another direction, and he combated Roman Catholics and nonconformists with equal energy. Of this character were his "Rational Account of the Grounds of Protestant Religion" (fol., 1664), written in vindication of Archbishop Laud's views in his conference with Fisher, the Jesuit; his "Discourse concerning the Idolatry practised in the Church of Rome" (1671), which he afterward defended against several antagonists; a sermon against the nonconformists entitled "The Mischief of Separation," which was answered by Owen, Baxter, and others, to whom Stillingfleet published a rejoinder entitled "The Unreasonableness of Separation" (4to., 1681); and a variety of less important tracts against the Roman Catholics, the Socinians, &c. He is, however, better known at the present day by his "Origines Sacræ, or Rational Account of the Grounds of Natural and Revealed Religion" (4to., 1662), which is still regarded as one of the ablest defences of the truth of revelation; and by his "Origines Britannica" (1685), an account of the ecclesiastical history of Britain from the introduction of Christianity to the conversion of the Saxons. After his consecration he devoted himself with great energy to diocesan reforms, and participated with distinction in parliamentary debates. He wrote several more polemical tracts and a number of miscellaneous pamphlets, and in the latter part of his life engaged in a sharp controversy with Locke on the latter's definition of substance and theory of ideas in general. His works were printed in 1710 in 6 vols. fol., to which was added in 1735 a volume of his miscellaneous works.

STILLMAN, SAMUEL, D.D., an American clergyman, born in Philadelphia, Feb. 27, 1737, died in Boston, March 12, 1807. His parents removed in his childhood to Charleston, S. C., where he studied theology; and he was licensed to preach in 1758, and ordained as an evangelist of the Baptist church in 1759. In 1761 he removed to Bordentown, N. J., and in 1763 to Boston, where in 1765 he became pas tor of the first Baptist church, which relation he held till his death, being for many years regarded as the most eloquent and popular

preacher in Boston. He was one of the founders and corporators of Brown university, and the schools of Boston were also indebted to his efforts for much of their efficiency. He was active in the promotion of all humane institutions, and was an officer of several of them at the time of his death. He was a member of the convention which framed the constitution of the United States. During his lifetime Dr. Stillman published a great number of sermons and addresses, some of which, with others previously unpublished, were collected in an 8vo. volume in 1808.

STILLWATER. See SARATOGa, Battle of. STILT, a wading bird of the avocet family, and genus himantopus (Briss.), so called from the length and slenderness of the legs. The bill is long, straight, slender, and pointed, with a groove on each side to the middle; wings long and pointed, 1st quill much the longest tail short and nearly even; legs very thin and long, with scaled tarsi; toes moderate, joined at the base, with a wide membrane between the outer and middle toes; hind toe wanting'; claws small and sharp; neck long. Of the half dozen species found in various parts of the world, may be mentioned two, the black-necked and the white stilt, the former American and the latter European. The black-necked stilt (H. nigricollis, Vieill.) is about 14 inches long, black above, with forehead, lower parts, rump, and tail white; bill black, and legs red. It is found as far N. as the middle states in spring, going S. beyond the limits of the United States in autumn; though the legs seem disproportionately long, it is a graceful bird, and frequents salt marshes in flocks of 6 to 20, delighting to wade knee-deep in search of aquatic larvæ and insects, snails, and small fry; the nests are built in company, at first upon the ground, from which they are gradually raised by successive additions; the eggs are usually 4, of a pale yellowish clay color, with large irregular blotches and lines of brownish black; though the gait on first alighting is rather unsteady, the flight is rapid and regular, the legs extending behind; the flesh is indifferent eating. The white stilt (H. melanopterus, Meyer) is of about the same size, and with similar habits, preferring, however, the edges of fresh water streams; it is white, with the back and wings shining_greenish black, and legs red; it is found in S. E. Europe, Asia, and Africa; the bill is 3 inches and tarsus 4.

STIRLING, a parliamentary and municipal burgh of Scotland, capital of Stirlingshire, on the river Forth, 31 m. W. N. W. from Edinburgh; pop. of the burgh in 1861, 13,846. The town is built on a height at the head of the navigation of the river, which is crossed by two bridges and a railroad. Many of the public buildings are very ancient, and the castle is supposed to have been originally built by the Romans. It stands upon a rocky height more than 200 feet above the plain, and forms a conspicuous object from several of the sur