send an expedition, consisting of four men-ofwar, against Acheen, in order to demand guarantees of a proper conduct, or to declare war. The Achinese view of the difficulty is set forth in an Arabic newspaper published in Constantinople-the Yuraib. In 1516 the Mohammedan ruler of Acheen asked to be recognized as a vassal of the Ottoman Porte, and the petition was granted. In 1856 the ruler of Acheen, Ala-ed-din-Mansulab, again applied to the Porte and took the oath of a vassal, and in reply received from the Turkish Sultan, Abdul Medjid, an order set in diamonds, with an acknowledgment that he was regarded as a vassal of the Porte. Since that time Acheen has been under the protection of the Sublime Porte, and all Achinese vessels sail under the Turkish flag. In 1742, when Sultan Mustapha ruled in Turkey, a treaty of peace and friendship was concluded at Constantinople between Holland and Acheen, one article of which provided that the Dutch be admitted to commercial transactions in Acheen. With England a treaty was concluded, which remained in force until 1871. The Dutch in 1766 violated the treaty of 1742, as they took possession of several portions of Sumatra. In 1825 they attacked several districts belonging to Acheen, and, when the latter complained of these acts, they merely denied that they passed beyond their boundaries. In 1871 Holland demanded the cession of several islands belonging to Acheen, and permission to erect light-houses at several points upon Achinese territory. On the part of Acheen it was replied that no concessions could be made without the consent of the Ottoman Porte; as to the lighthouses, the Sultan of Acheen would erect them at his own expense. The Dutch objected to this, uttered threats, and then prepared for an attack, evidently for the purpose of conquering Acheen. Under these circumstances the Sultan of Acheen sent his primeminister, Abdul-Rahman Fahir Effendi to Constantinople, and, not until after he had set out on his voyage, did the Dutch begin the war.

After the declaration of war by the Netherlands, the government of Acheen once more endeavored to obtain another delay. New negotiations were opened, but soon broken off, as Acheen refused to give definite promises. The four men-of-war which had accompanied the Dutch commissary were then ordered to open hostilities. The troops, numbering about 4,000 men, arrived on April 5th, and were landed on April 8th and 9th. The resistance was inch greater than the Dutch had expected, and the information which they had received of the military movements and preparations of the Achinese proved to be incorrect. A few redoubts were taken, but their losses were severe; the commander-in-chief, Major-General Kohler, was among the killed; a general discouragement spread among the troops, and, as the rainy season was near at hand, it was

believed impossible to obtain any lasting result before autumn. The warlike operations were therefore suspended, the troops from Acheen withdrawn on April 28th, and during the summer preparations were made for a second expedition on a larger scale, to be sent out toward the close of the year. The Dutch Chambers unanimously voted an extraordinary credit for the new expedition, and the Government appointed General Van Swieten as commander-in-chief. The number of the Achinese troops was estimated by the Dutch as high as 80,000 men. In November, a body of 9,000 Dutch troops effected a landing on the coast of Acheen, without meeting with any resistance. The Dutch Government had announced its intention to establish, if successful, a protectorate over Acheen. The best work published on Acheen is by the Dutch geographer, Prof. P. J. Veth, "Atchin en zyne betrekkingen tot Nederland" (Leiden, 1873). It contains a map, drawn by Col. W. F. Versteeg, which shows that the Dutch are well informed on the coast, but very little on the interior. (See also NETHERLANDS.)

ADALBERT, Prince HEINRICH WILHELM, of Prussia, Admiral and Inspector-General of the German Marine, grandson of Friedrich Wilhelm II. and cousin of the present Emperor of Germany, born at Berlin, October 29, 1811; died at Carlsbad in Bohemia, June 6, 1873. His father was the Prince Friedrich Wilhelm Karl, who died in 1851, and his mother the Princess Amelia Maria Anna of Hesse-Homburg. He entered the Prussian army at an early age, and was attached to the artillery corps. But, beyond most of the Hohenzollern family, he possessed a strong taste for travel, and desired to see foreign countries. In 1826 he visited Holland; in 1832, England and Scotland; in 1834, St. Petersburg and Moscow; in 1837, Central Russia, Turkey, Greece, and the Ionian Islands. In 1842 the King of Sardinia placed a frigate at his service, which enabled him to visit Genoa, Gibraltar, Tangiers, Madeira, and Teneriffe. He also crossed the ocean and explored the coasts of Brazil. On returning from this voyage,he published an account of his journey under the title: "Aus meinem Reisetagebuche" in 1842-'43. In 1848 Prince Adalbert was charged with the organization of the German national marine, and received the title of admiral. His labors in this capacity led him to publish the volume, "Denkschrift über die Bildung einer deutschen Flotte." In 1856 he undertook a new voyage in the Mediterranean and along the coast of Morocco. On this occasion he was attacked by pirates, and in the combat which ensued he received a slight wound. When the German navy over which he commanded ceased to exist, he was made commander of the marine of Prussia. He inspected the gun-boats which Prussia constructed in 1861, and, when the war with Denmark was begun, he received the title of admiral. The late war with France

imperative duty of the Seventh-Day Adventists to take immediate steps for the formation of an Educational Society and the establishment of a denominational school." It is intended to give facilities in this school for the study of the languages of those countries to which the General Conference will send ministers. III. ADVENT CHRISTIANS. - The Advent Christians believe the doctrines of the immediate personal coming and reign of Christ on the earth; holiness of heart; the unconscious state of the dead; their literal resurrection; and of the final destruction of the wicked. Their sixth national camp-meeting was held at Springfield, Mass., August 25th to August 31st. It was devoted to religious exercises. Their business is cared for by the Advent Christian Association and the Advent Christian Publication Society. They have also a missionary society. The Advent Christian Association is composed of one delegate from each church, "and one additional delegate for every body of fifty members." In the call for the meeting of 1873 it was specified that "any body of believers in Christ cooperating in the work and design of the Association will be accepted as a church, and every preacher cooperating is entitled to membership." The sixteenth annual meeting of the Association was held in connection with the national camp-meeting at Springfield, Mass., August 25th and 26th. It was attended by fifty-nine preachers, several of whom were women, and twenty-nine lay delegates. Its business consisted in listening to an address from the president, and receiving the minutes and reports of the Association, and of the Advent Christian Publication Society. The treasurer of the Publication Society reported that his receipts for the year had been $21,448.55, and his expenditures $20,707.18, leaving a balance in the treasury of $741.37. The property of the society on hand, including this balance, was valued at $10,401.21. The business agent reported the capital of the society to be $18,501.21. About 1,100,000 pages of tracts had been published during the year. The sum of $885.65 had been received on the tract fund, being $329.27 more than were received during the previous year. The receipts of the American Advent Missionary Society for the year ending August 27, 1873, were $5,532.62; its expenses were $5,207.50.

IV. LIFE AND ADVENT UNION.-The Life and Advent Union is constituted of believers in the doctrines of "life only in Christ" (embracing that of the annihilation of the wicked), and of the personal proximate advent of our Lord Jesus. Its camp-meeting and business meetings were held at Springfield, Mass., commencing August 10th. The second anniversary of the Life and Advent Missionary Society was held at the camp-ground in Springfield, August 15th. The receipts of the society were reported to have been $129.77, and its expenditures $78.85.

AFRICA. The area of Africa (according to Behm and Wagner, Die Bevölkerung der Erde, Gotha, 1872) was estimated in 1872 at 11,456,000 square miles; the population at 192,520,000.*

The religious complexion of Africa has of late undergone great changes. Mohammedanism is steadily advancing in Central Africa, and is now once more becoming the leading religion. It spreads among the negro races the fanaticisin and fatalism of Islam, but elevates many of them by the establishment of schools. The number of the Mohammedan population may now be estimated at 80,000,000. On the other hand, the important island of Madagascar may be regarded as fully secured for Protestant Christianity. The ruling classes have mostly joined the Church, and the Christianization of the whole island may be expected within a comparatively short period. When it shall be complete, Madagascar with its 5,000,000 will be the largest Christian state of Africa, and the Protestant population will be swollen to about 6,000,000, who with the 3,000,000 Abyssinians and 1,500,000 Catholics, would form a Christian population of about 10,500,000.

The steady and rapid growth of Egypt is attracting the attention of the civilized world. Werner Munzinger Bey, the learned Swiss geographer who has been appointed by the Egyptian Government Governor of Massowah and Suakin, has firmly established the Egyptian rule in the mountain-districts bordering upon Abyssinia; and Sir Samuel Baker, who, in June, 1873, returned from his expedition to the interior of Africa, claimed to have subjected to the rule of the Khedive all the country between the Albert Nyanza and the Victoria Nyanza down to the equator. If this country can be permanently secured for Egypt, its area would exceed 1,000,000 square miles, making it, next to Russia, China, the United States, the British Empire, and Brazil, the largest empire of the globe. The dependency of Egypt upon Turkey is thus becoming more and more nominal, and may at any time come to a sudden end. (See EGYPT.)

In Abyssinia, the rule of Prince Kassa, or, as he is now called, Emperor Johannes, has been greatly strengthened, and he was, in 1873, regarded as the actual ruler of all Amhara and Tigré. (See ABYSSINIA.)

The treaty concluded in 1871 between England and the Netherlands, by which the latter ceded all the Dutch possessions on the coast of Guinea to England, while England, on the other hand, withdrew her former opposition to the extension of Dutch rule on the island of Sumatra, has become for both treaty powers a source of serious difficulties. While the Netherlands have become involved in a war with the Sultan of Acheen, England had to

divisions and subdivisions, see AMERICAN ANNUAL *For an account of the area and population of the CYCLOPEDIA for 1872.

carry on a bloody and protracted war against the Ashantees, which at the end of the year had not been brought to a close. (See ACHEEN and ASHANTEE.)

In June, the English Government succeeded in coercing the Sultan of Zanzibar, in Eastern Africa, to conclude a treaty by which the slavetrade is forbidden. In the northern portion of Central Africa, a gradual suppression of the slave-trade, and subsequently of slavery, is expected from the extension of Egyptian rule. Sir Samuel Baker represented it as one of the chief objects of his expedition. (See ZANZIBAR.)

In South Africa, the diamond and gold fields were still worked by large crowds of diggers, but their operations have not had any lasting influence upon the political complexion of these countries. In the Orange Free State, President Brand, who has been at the head of this republic for ten years and enjoys a great popularity, has been unanimously reelected for a third term of five years.

Sultan Sidi Mohammed, of Morocco, who died on September 18th, was succeeded on the throne by his son. The report that a war of succession had broken out between the son and the brother of the deceased, proved to be

untrue.

(On the progress of geographical exploration, see GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATIONS.)

AGASSIZ, LOUIS JEAN RODOLPHE, M. D., Ph. D., LL. D., F. R. S., Society of Natural Academy of Sciences, Corresponding Member of the French Academy of Science, etc., etc., the most eminent of modern scientists, born in the parish of Mottier, near Lake Neufchâtel, Switzerland, May 28, 1807; died in Cambridge, Mass., December 14, 1873. His father, like his paternal ancestors for six generations, was a Protestant clergyman, and pastor of the parish of St.-Imier. His mother, who was the daughter of a physician, superintended the early education of her son, till he entered the college at Lausanne. From Lausanne he went to the medical school of Zurich, and thence to the University of Heidelberg, where he prosecuted his medical and natural history studies, under the most eminent teachers of Germany. At the age of twenty he entered the University of Munich, and was associated with the naturalist Döllinger, under the instruction of Wagler, Oken, and Martius. Already he had begun to turn away from the practice of medicine, to which he had been destined by his mother, in order to give his whole attention to natural science, and had published several monographs on topics of natural history; but he did not give himself wholly to scientific pursuits, until he was called upon by Professor Martius to compile for publication the ichthyological portion of the report of the scientific expedition to Brazil, which had then recently returned to Germany. In 1831 he received the degree of M. D. from the University of Munich, and the same year the degree

of Ph. D. from the University of Erlangen. About this time also, Cotta, the German scientific publisher, furnished him the means to prepare his "Natural History of the FreshWater Fishes of Europe," which was not published till 1839-'40. This completed, he went to Vienna, and there, and in Paris, occupied the next seven years in the study of the fossil fishes of the Danube. In Paris, he became the friend as well as the favorite pupil of Cuvier and Humboldt, both of whom rendered him liberal aid in his studies; and he was also associated in his investigations with Owen, the English scientist, Milne-Edwards, a distinguished French zoologist, and Rudolph Wagner and Johannes Müller, German physiologists of great learning. Agassiz has been justly regarded as the founder of the science of fossil ichthyology; and its development was almost solely due to his great work on fossil fishes, which he was enabled to publish through the liberality of Baron von Humboldt. This work, published at Neufchâtel, 1834-'44, is in five volumes, 4to, with an atlas of nearly 400 folio plates, in which 1,000 species were wholly, and 700 more partially, figured and described. It was while engaged on this great work, and during his vacations, which were spent in the Alps, that he first formed that theory of the glaciers, which thirty-seven years of subsequent study and explorations only served more fully to expand and develop. This theory, after the most violent opposition, has finally come to be accepted by most geologists, not only as a scientific fact, but as the basis of further geological deductions of great importance. To show the thoroughness of his researches, before making his first publication on this subject, it may be remarked that, previous to 1837, when he published his first "Etudes sur les Glaciers," he had spent eight summers upon the glacier of the Aar, 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, and twelve miles from any human habitation. It was not till 1847 that he published his great work on this subject, the "Système Glacière," and his long journeys and voyages, circumnavigating the entire American Continent, have only confirmed more fully the positions maintained in that work. In 1832, at the age of twenty-five, he had been appointed Professor of Natural History at Neufchâtel, and he retained this professorship until 1846, though prosecuting in connection with it his studies on fossils and glaciers. Having completed his great work on fossil fishes, with the hearty assistance of his friends Desor and Vogt, who were also professors in the University of Neufchâtel, he turned his attention to the mollusca and the echinoderms, and published several important monographs in relation to the living and fossil species of their orders. At the age of thirty, he was a member of nearly every scientific society in Europe, and had received the degree of LL. D. from the Universities of Edinburgh and Dublin. In 1848 Prof. Agassiz came to the United