New York; measurement of velocity of underflow of water in sands and gravels; springs of New York State; underground water supplies of New Jersey; pollution of underground waters of Georgia; underground water resources of Louisiana and Arkansas; springs of Missouri; and artesian waters of Minnesota and Wisconsin.

In part the field work has consisted of the running of levels connecting wells with railroad levels, thereby establishing a basis for determining the structure of water-bearing formations. Such work has been conducted with success in southern Arkansas and Louisiana, where it is expected that it will aid in determining the most available water horizons for the supply of towns and cities, and perhaps lead to more extended use of underground water for the irrigation of rice. In Missouri promising results include the discovery of new artesian areas and the relations of temperatures of cavern and surface springs at similar horizons, the development of caves and sinks by underground drainage, and surface modifications resulting therefrom; and, in general, the origin, flow, and temperature of all underground waters and their economic uses.

In the western section, among the more important results so far obtained are the amounts of variation in water levels at localities where water is being extensively utilized for irrigation, as in Salt River Valley in Arizona and San Joaquin Valley in California. In these and similar areas tests to determine the movements of underground waters have been made, and much light has already been thrown upon these obscure phenomena.

In the Dakotas much attention has been given to special geologic work, with a view to ascertaining the relations of underground waters to the geologic structure. Reports and maps have been prepared giving a review of the artesian conditions in the great central plains. Figs. 4 and 5 show the progress of the hydrologic work.

For publications on hydrologic subjects see the Survey's list of publications.

DIVISION OF HYDRO-ECONOMICS.

The entire hydrographic work of the Survey is, to a more or less extent, of an economic character. The special work of the division. of hydro-economics may, however, be said to have been started with the gaging of rivers in the eastern portion of the United States, as the reason for this development was the need of data for water-power and other economic purposes. The first investigation of this nature was a study of the Potomac drainage basin, begun in April, 1891.

Another development took place in 1895 with a general reconnaissance and establishment of gaging stations in the southern Atlantic drainage basins in the States of Virginia, West Virginia, North Caro

lina, and Georgia. The work has since constantly enlarged from year to year, until it now includes every State in the humid region.

A special department of the work, and one of a distinctly economic character, was established in 1897, when a detailed study of the sources of pollution of the Potomac Basin was undertaken. Samples of water for bacteriologic examination were collected in sterilized bottles at the mouths of all important tributaries, and at such other points along the river as were of special interest, as at locations of sawmills, tanneries, and immediately below important towns.

At about this time in the New England States, especially in Maine, the study of water powers was commenced. In four years the subject was fairly well covered, and the results were published in WaterSupply Paper No. 69.

During 1895, 1896, and 1898 a study of the hydrography of the streams of New York State was undertaken by the State engineer's office and the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. During 1900 the Geological Survey assumed charge of the stations, and, in cooperation with the State engineer and surveyor, extended and continued the work.

In 1901, at the request of the water-supply department of the city of New York, a detailed study of the hydrography of the streams that might possibly furnish a water supply for the city was undertaken by. this Survey, and has been continued to date.

Owing to the increased demand for information on water powers, municipal water supplies, sanitary conditions of rivers, flood preventions, and other allied questions, the division of hydro-economics was established in January, 1902. At that time its work was confined to reviewing chemical and board-of-health reports and extracting therefrom such matter as applied directly to the quality of natural waters. From the results of this work there was prepared a report entitled "Normal and Polluted Waters in Northeastern United States," which has been issued as Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 79.

Subsequently cooperative relations with various laboratories throughout the country were established. The arrangements involve the study of important problems concerning river pollution, river purification, and municipal water supply. The laboratories partaking in the initial scheme of cooperation were: Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me.; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y.; Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y.; Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa.; Earlham College, Richmond, Ind.; Central University of Kentucky, Danville, Ky.; University of St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.; University of Missouri, School of Mines, Rolla, Mo.; University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.

Cooperative relations were arranged also with the boards of health of Minnesota and Ohio. In the former case an agreement was entered into between the State board of health and the University of Minnesota and the Geological Survey, whereby certain work was to be performed and paid for by appropriations agreed upon. It is the purpose of those in charge of the division to make arrangements of this character in all possible cases.

When it was proposed to devise methods for water analysis those in charge of the chemical departments of the important railroads of the country were asked to submit their ideas on the subject, as well as the results of experience gained in their various laboratories. In this way there was brought together a large amount of valuable information which has been used in devising these methods. Among the roads which have been of assistance in this way are the Pennsylvania Railroad, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, Chicago and Northwestern, Milwaukee and St. Paul, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, Union Pacific, Baltimore and Ohio, Norfolk and Western, Philadelphia and Reading, New York Central and Hudson River.

The work of the division of hydro-economics, although recently established, has already afforded practical results. Among the most important of these are:

Determinations of sources of water suitable for industrial and boiler purposes in West Virginia, western Pennsylvania, and southeastern Ohio.

Character of water supplies of southeastern Kansas.

A chemical survey of waters in Florida, with special reference to their suitability for use in steam boilers.

Sulphite wood-pulp waste; its damage to natural waters and the prevention thereof on Androscoggin River, Maine.

Coal-mine wastes; their character and value and their effect upon the waters of Susquehanna and Lehigh rivers, Pennsylvania.

Straw-board waste in Indiana and Ohio; its damage to water resources, the prevention thereof, and its profitable recovery.

Character of waters in Minnesota and Iowa, with special reference to the possibility of their being used as city supplies.

Determination of alkaline and saline constituents in waters of the arid States which it is proposed to conserve for irrigation purposes. Character of normal waters in Kentucky and their value in municipal and industrial lines.

Interstate pollution of Hoosic River, in Vermont, Massachusetts, and New York, and the damage caused thereby to riparian owners in New York.

For publications on hydro-economic subjects see the Survey's list of publications.

RECLAMATION SERVICE.

The reclamation service is an outgrowth of the early investigations of the arid region begun by Maj. J. W. Powell, and continued by authority of Congress under a resolution approved March 27, 1888, and an appropriation made October 2, 1888 (see p. 75). Systematic examination of the streams of the arid region were then begun by the Geological Survey, and have been carried on continuously in connection with topographic surveys or by means of various appropriations and allotments made for gaging streams and determining the water supply, as described in the preceding pages.

The act approved June 17, 1902, known as the reclamation law, creates a fund in the Treasury from the disposal of public lands in 13 States and 3 Territories. This fund is to be expended by the Secretary of the Interior in the reclamation of arid lands.

In order to carry into effect the purpose of the law, the Secretary authorized the creation of a division in the Geological Survey designated the "reclamation service," utilizing, for this purpose, the men who had previously been investigating the extent to which the arid lands might be reclaimed, and adding to these, through civil-service examinations, other men experienced in construction of reclamation works or in the administration of water laws.

The reclamation service now consists of about 250 engineers, assistant engineers, and engineering aids, organized under a chief engineer, who is assisted by supervising, consulting, and district engineers. Each of the district engineers is in charge of the operations in a State or a large drainage basin, and conducts the general examinations and directs the assistant engineers and engineering aids in work on definite projects. When these projects have been brought to a point where conclusions can be reached, the facts and recommendations are submitted to the chief engineer, who in turn refers them to a board of consulting engineers to pass upon the adequacy of the work, the completeness of the designs, and all facts which bear upon the feasibility of the project. If additional information or any modifications are desired by the board, the matter is referred back to the district engineer for further consideration. Ultimately the plans perfected and approved by the consulting engineers are submitted, with suitable recommendations, through the Director of the Geological Survey, to the Secretary of the Interior. When the plans are passed upon and approved by the Secretary, if the work is to be done by contract, advertisements and specifications are prepared and bids invited for the work, these being so arranged as to permit as great competition as possible. If it is decided that any part or all of the work shall be done by the Government, instructions to that effect are given.

Such surveys and examinations for specific construction have been

begun at important points in the various States and Territories. Construction is in progress in Nevada and Arizona, and plans leading to early construction in several other States are in hand. For locations of the principal irrigation projects see fig. 2, p. 80.

The States and Territories in which reclamation works may be built and which include public land from which a revenue is derived are Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.

The amount of available funds derived under the law from the different States differs widely, as the largest amount of land is being disposed of in those States where the climatic conditions favor farming without irrigation or where there are considerable bodies of timber land. Thus it happens that the States which have the largest amount of arid land and the development of which under irrigation is most important contribute the smallest amount to the fund.

The works must be so designed as to reclaim arid land whose value will be so great that the cost of the water can be readily repaid by the settlers living on the land. The cost of the works is apportioned with a view to returning to the reclamation fund the cost of construction, and thus it is necessary not merely to conserve and regulate the flow of the streams, but to do this in such way that there can be no question as to the ability of the settlers to repay the cost to the Government. The money thus returned to the Treasury is added to the reclamation fund for subsequent use. Payments are made by the settlers in ten

annual installments.

The irrigation of arid lands has already advanced, through private enterprise, to a point where the easily available waters have been utilized. There remain large rivers and the erratic floods which must be controlled for the reclamation of tracts of land which are partly in public and partly in private ownership, but to which water can not be brought by ordinary effort.

Nearly all the projects of reclamation involve not merely engineering difficulties, but legal and social questions dealing with acquired rights and with individuals having diverse views and conflicting interests. Thus it is necessary to employ not only engineering ability, but also a certain amount of legal skill, and, with these, tact and judgment in adjusting conflicting interests.

It

The thorough study which is being made of the opportunities for reclamation of the arid West, especially for the construction of large works of irrigation, will result in great changes in, and rapid development of the resources of, the western half of the United States. will make available for use hundreds of thousands of acres of land now sterile and waste, and will indirectly result in giving increased value to all property, whether directly connected with agriculture and stock