AONIUS PALEARIUS, wrote his "Inquisitionis Detrectator," in 1536. He calls the Inquisition a poinard held at the throats of literary men. He was beheaded for his writings at Rome, in 1570.

The work called "Squitinio della Liberta Veneta," 1612, previously noticed, was considered a very seditious one by the public authorities of Italy. The author makes some severe strictures on the Venetian government, showing that its boasted freedom was, in fact, no freedom at all. The work was burned by the common executioner in the city of Venice.

TRAJANO BOCALINI'S "I Ruggriagli di Parnasso," 1630, (or Advertisement from Parnassus in two centuries; with the Political-Touchstone), is a curious work. It was translated into English in 1657, by the Earl of Monmouth. The work is a satirical effusion, and must have told with some effect among the political speculators and literati of Italy. The general scope of the work is, that a society of politicians open a shop or warehouse in Parnassus, where they sell various sorts of merchandise. The things they dispose of have an allusion to the party politics of the day and country. The warehouse is represented as being amply stored with stuffing or bombast, an article little prized by the common run of people, but highly valued by courtiers. The shavings of the finest clothes which wise men weave with the superfine wool of forbearance, serves to stuff the pack-saddles of slavery, to make them more easy for the courtiers. Pencils are likewise sold for the use of those princes who have occasionally to paint black for white. Spectacles, compasses, besoms, iron instruments, perfumed comforts, horse-trammels, and peacock's feathers, are among the articles puffed off as

specifics for state necessities and ailments. Oil is a standard commodity for strengthening the stomachs of courtiers, and their royal masters. The political ink, however, takes the precedence of all other articles, for by it politicians have it in their power to confer immortality upon all writers whose cause they espouse. There is much good sense, and profound observation displayed throughout the volume. The "Teatro Jesuitico," 1654, is one of the most bitter works which ever appeared in Italy against the jesuits. Its author is supposed to be Pierre Jurieu. He denominates the Society of Jesus to be the common pest of all nations; dangerous alike to the sovereign and the people. He likewise wrote "Catéchisme des Jésuites," 1602. Loyola, their founder, he calls an incendiary, a fool, a sophist, an ass, a Don robber, and a glutton. The books were condemned to the flames, and are now very scarce.

The satirical works of FERRANTE PALLAVICIN, 1660, form a curious specimen of Italian satire. He attacks the popish system with great earnestness and bitterness, calling Urban VIII. by all kinds of names, and showing that the system of theological supremacy was infamous in principle, and degrading in practice. The author had to take shelter in Venice; but was inveigled into France, where he was beheaded at Avignon, in the twenty-third year of his age.

The satirical works of GIGLI, 1700, are spoken of, by Italian writers, as having had some political influence in their day. They were committed to the flames, both at Rome and Florence. The poetical effusions of BAPTISA, a native of Mantua, abound with severe censures on the Roman hierarchy.

There were a great number of political caricatures published in Italy, after the revival of letters, and for a couple of centuries afterwards. Of these, little is known in this country; and regular collections of them even in the chief Italian cities are by no means common. But for a long time after the art of printing became generally known, the painters and engravers were very active; and many hundreds of the most amusing and pungent caricatures of the public authorities of the day, were brought before the public eye.

Newspapers, by a sort of common consent among antiquaries, date their origin from Italy. The gazettas of the Italians, which sold for a small coin called gazetta, are the foundation of our English gazettes. These vehicles of public news first appeared in the republic of Venice, and was under the direct superintendence of the government. Other cities and states in Italy adopted these kind of newspapers, under the same name. Mr. George Chalmers says, that "A jealous government did not allow a printed newspaper; and the Venetian gazetta continued long after the invention of printing, to the close of the sixteenth century, and even to our own days, to be distributed in manuscript." There are thirty volumes of Venetian gazettas in the Magliabechian Library, at Florence, all in manuscript*.

* See note D, at the end of the volume.

CHAPTER V.

POLITICAL LITERATURE OF GERMANY, HOLLAND, THE NETHERLANDS, AND OTHER NORTHERN KINGDOMS OF EUROPE, FROM THE YEAR 1400, TILL 1700.

FROM the various countries, whose political systems we have to notice collectively in this chapter, we shall be compelled to lean more to the chronological, than to the territorial division of our matter. This partial deviation from our general design, will not, it is hoped, prove any stumbling-block either to the scientific or general reader.

The political literature of Germany after the year 1400, till the actual commencement of the Reformation, consists of little or nothing, save some dry scholastic discussions on the general polity of states. These were merely elementary treatises for the use of such students of the several universities of the kingdom, as were destined for the legal profession. The spirit of what is called modern politics, is coeval in this country with the rise and progress of the Reformation. Temporal and spiritual reforms were discussed together; and the idea was a very prevalent one, among all the most active and intelligent men of the country, that they ought never to be separated, either in theory or in practice.

The political elements of the Reformation manifested themselves very early in the German states. The opposition to the Church of Rome, as a civil establishment, became very active in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and it grew more headstrong and violent in proportion as the papal power sought to exterminate every rising aspiration of freedom with fire and sword. The reformers of this part of Europe were the most indomitable and energetic, and though they had no particular social or political theory to advance, yet they disseminated in every corner of the country, those general principles of equality and liberty, so profusely scattered throughout the sacred writings. The church was no longer an independent institution, but became merged in the state. The power of the clergy was more dependent, as well as that of princes; and, in the administration of justice, arbitrary rule and personal authority were checked and brought under the influence of higher principles of equity and right. All these, and many other equally weighty considerations, found their way to the public mind; and greatly influenced the early political writings in Germany, on the fundamental principles of civil polity and government.

The first efforts of intellectual freedom in the sphere of politics, were neither very rational nor expedient in some parts of the German states. Early in the sixteenth century, these were founded on one-sided and partial views of scripture truths and declarations. The writings of the anabaptists created disturbances at Amsterdam, and an insurrection in Westphalia. Their political creed ran thus:-"We have one common father Adam, whence comes the diversity of ranks and of goods? Why groan we in poverty while others