Kerr's Appointment in the Army, and Election to Congress. 339 of his duties, and did much that winter to aid the government and the troops in the field. While in the council, he was elected a member of the convention which declared Texas independent; but from the imminent danger of his family, on the approach of Santa Anna, he was compelled to postpone taking his seat; and before he could leave them in a safe position, the convention adjourned from necessity. In the organization of the republic in March, 1836, he was appointed by President Burnet major in the army, and as a necessary precaution to enable him to devote his entire time to the public good, he sent his family to Missouri, where they remained some time. In the spring of 1837 he also visited his old home in that state, and received many flattering marks of respect from his former friends, and the people wherever he was known. In 1838 he was elected to the Texan Congress, in which body he rendered invaluable service to the exposed frontier, in securing the passage of the first anti-dueling law, and the removal of the seat of government from Houston to Austin; a measure of cherished policy on the part of the western half of the republic. No man exerted more salutary influence in that body; nor was any one better qualified by long residence,patient investigation, and intimate acquaintance with the land laws and system of Mexico, to propose wise legislation in regard to the land titles of the country which he had adopted. Soon after this, Major Kerr, long having devoted himself to the public interests, sought retirement, with the view of settling up his long-neglected private affairs, and devoting himelf to the pursuits of agriculture and to the education of his children, (having married a second time in 1833.) Still, much of his time was given to the public, rendered valuable as his information was in regard to the history of the country and the rights of property; and after our annexation to the mother country, he served as one of the United States marshals. Like his distinguished relative, Philip Doddridge, Major Kerr possessed a remarkable memory that never failed him; a discriminating knowledge of men and things; a strong and well-balanced mind; and a nobleness of heart that ever made him a favorite with his friends—a hightoned and honorable gentleman, long to be remembered with grateful affection by those who knew him. Though well advanced in life, and having for nearly fifty years lived through continued trials and hardships, incident to his residence in new and dangerous frontiers, he enjoyed good health and an unabated flow of good spirits, till the brief illness which closed his life. He died suddenly, of pneumonia, at his old residence on the La Vaca, on the 23d of December, 1850, aged sixty years and three months. He chose to be interred on his own premises; and in presence of a large concourse of friends his remains were deposited in the spot selected by himself. A handsome marble tomb, with an appropriate inscription, marks the spot. Long will he be remembered as one of the noble pioneers of Western Texas. ART. IV.-CHINA IN ONE THOUSAND EIGHT HUNDRED ORIGIN GEOGRAPHY - RIVERS — PUBLIC WORKS-WALL-CANAL-APPEARANCE OF THE MINERALS-GOVERNMENT AND LAWS-REVENUES--EXPENDITURES-CURRENCY-PRODUC- THE extension of our territory to the Every day is it more indispensable that Pacific, the inland and inter-sea com- we become acquainted with the means munication we are proposing to open for and the resources, the wealth and the the accommodation of our remote settle- power, of nations around us, with whom ments, and for the promotion of India we are to have close commercial and trade, are introducing, as we have fre- social intercourse. In this view we have quently pointed out, a new era in the presented, in our pages, within the last history of the American confederation. few months, elaborate papers upon VOL. XIV. 3 "Mexico," upon "Cuba," the "Sand- belot, the name was derived from Tsin, wich Islands," "Australia,” "South or Chin, a celebrated family in Chinese America," and "Russia." We proceed history, who held possession of a large to other countries of equal interest. portion of the western part of China; to It has been a question long agitated which portion the name China being by the learned, whether the country first given by travelers from the west, at now known as CHINA is identical with length became extended to the whole that of the ancient Seres, whose territory empire. According to Kloproth, the is called by Ptolemy and others Serica. name China is derived from the Malays, M. Malte Brun is opposed to the iden- who call the country Tchina. tity, and considers the ancient Serica The Chinese have a variety of names the same country as that of the most for themselves and country. One of the western regions of Thibet, or perhaps most ancient is Tien Hia, meaning "beCashmere, Little Thibet, and Little neath the sky," and denoting the world. Bucharia. Most of the highest modern Another name nearly as ancient is S authorities, such as Gibbon,* Murray, Hai; that is, "all within the four seas." Du Halde, Kloproth,† M. Abel-Remusat, The most common name given by the De Guignes, and other distinguished inhabitants to the country is Chung orientalists, decide for the identity. Dr. Kwoh, or Middle Kingdom, from the Anthon rests the question upon the testi- idea that China is the centre of the earth, mony of Ptolemy, whose descriptions, the Chinese having as good a right to made from accounts which he heard in call their country the centre of the earth India, are found by modern geographers as the Greeks theirs. Hence Mr. Wil to be remarkably accurate, particularly liams entitles his late invaluable work regarding the river Hoang Ho, which he on China "The Middle Kingdom." The describes under the name of Baúricos, Malays, Hindoos, Persians, Arabians, (Bautisus.) Vossius is positive on the and other Asiatic nations, apply to subject. He says: Whoever doubts China the names Chin, Sin, Sinas, Tzinis the identity of the Seres of the ancients tae, and other similar names. and the modern Chinese, may as well thought, by eminent commentators, that doubt whether the sun which now shines the prophet Isaiah speaks of China as be the same with that which formerly gave light." It is "the land of Sinim," in chap. xlix. 12. The Tsin dynasty established the cus It is a singular circumstance that the tom of calling the country by the name empire of China, second to none in popu- of the reigning dynasty. The present is lation, and only second perhaps to that the Tsing dynasty, and hence the empire of Russia in extent, has ever borne a is now called Ta Tsing Kwoh; that is, name abroad utterly unknown to its in- Great Pure Kingdom. The terms Hanhabitants. The ancient name Seres for jin Han-tsz'-that is, men or sons of Han the inhabitants, and Serica for the coun- -are now in common use by the people try, were derived from anp, the word to denote themselves; the Han dynasty, used by the Greeks to denote silkworm, which was in power from 202 B.C. to 220 China being known to them only as the A.D., being regarded by the Chinese as land of silk; but the inhabitants them- the most glorious of all their dynasties. selves know nothing of those names. In The name Celestial Empire, Tien Chan, like manner the names China and Chi- is also used by the Chinese; but the nese are only known out of China. The origin of the name China has given rise to much discussion. "The people themselves have no such name for their country, nor is there much evidence that they ever did apply the term to the whole country." According to D'Her term Celestials they have never ventured to adopt, that being, as Mr. Williams says, of entirely foreign origin. EXTENT OF THE EMPIRE.-The most northern point of the empire is on the Russian frontier, in lat. 56°, 30′ N., the boundary line running along the range quote this work often, and rely upon it for a large amount of the information contained in this paper, we take occasion to say of it, that it is the latest and most complete work that has appeared on China. Mr. Williams resided many years in China, and is entitled to the highest credit for the valuable information he furnishes. His work is entitled "The Middle Kingdom." Wiley, New-York, 1851. Bibliothéque Orientale, tome 10, p. 8. Principal Divisions of the Empire-Rivers, Lakes, &c. 341 valleys, for the most part, are cultivated. of the Yablonoi mountains; Cape Pa- drained by the great navigable rivers, tience, including the isle of Sagalien, is the Kiang or Blue River, and the Hoangthe most eastern point of the empire, in ho or Yellow River. From east to west lat. 48° 10′ N. and long. 144° 50′ E. this vast plain country has an average The western bend of the Belur-tag width of 200 miles. South of the parallel mountains, in lat. 70° E., is the western of 30° is the hilly country. The hills do boundary. Cashgar is the largest town not attain a great elevation, and their of importance on the western frontier. sides are cultivated. Their tops are The southern boundary is extremely ir- covered with pines which have been regular. The most southern point of the planted. The region is well watered, Empire, including the Isle of Hainan, is and the greater portion of the surface is in lat. 18 10' N. It has Siberia on the in a high state of cultivation. In the north; Independent Tartary on the west; mountainous portion of China only the India and the Birman Empire on the south; and the Pacific on the east. The general figure of the Empire is a rectangle; the longest line in which that can be drawn, from south-west to north-east, is 3,350 miles long. The length from east to west is about 77 degrees of long, and the width about 40. The area of this vast region, as estimated by McCulloch, after a most careful examination of the best authorities, is fixed at 5,300,000 square miles; which, says Mr. Williams, is much nearer the truth than the usual sum of 3,010,400 square miles. The circuit of the whole empire is 12,550 miles, or about half the circumference of the globe. The entire line of seacoast is 3,350 miles. The area of the Chinese Empire comprises about onethird of that of the whole continent, and about one-tenth of the habitable globe. The Chinese Empire is nearly a third larger than the entire territory of the United States. The Chinese themselves, who have an immense number of books on the geography of the empire, divide it into three principal divisions: 1. The Eighteen Provinces, or China Proper. 2. Manchuria, or all the north-eastern part of the empire, extending west to about the meridian of Peking. 3. Colonial Possessions, including Mongolia, Koko-nor, Thibet, and all other parts not mentioned above. China Proper has an area of about 2,000,000 of square miles; or it is about the size of our states east of the Rocky Mountains. About half of the whole surface of China Proper is very mountainous. The north-eastern portion is called the Great Plain, extending from the great wall north of Peking, 700 miles, to the 30th parallel of N. latitude. This vast plain is the richest portion of China, and is RIVERS, LAKES, COASTS.-The Hoangho and the Yang-tse-kiang are among the largest rivers on the globe. The rivers of China, says Williams, are her glory, and no country can compare with her for natural facilities of inland navigation. The next two largest rivers are the Aneour and the Tarim. The Yang-tsekiang is the largest river of China. It is about 3,000 miles long. The Yellow River is about 2,200 miles long. The Yang-tse-kiang is navigable nearly 2,000 miles for boats, and for ships of the largest size, some 300 or 400 miles. The river is very deep. It is found to be over 120 feet deep 300 miles from the sea. Its banks are not inundated to any great extent by freshets. The tides are perceptible 400 miles. The tributaries are very numerous and advantageously distributed; so that the river drains a basin of 750,000 square miles. The Yellow River drains a basin nearly as large; but it is a rapid, turbid, furious stream, only navigable by steamers, which the Chinese have not. The cities on its banks are constantly in danger of being submerged. The disas trous overflowings of the river are a perpetual source of expenditure to the government, and of peril and calamity to the people. Without a further description of individual rivers in China, it is sufficient to say, that numerous large rivers flow through the country, each some hundreds of miles in length, draining vast regions of country, unsurpassed in fertility. Their banks are lined with populous cities and towns. The lakes of China are comparatively few and small, the largest, the Tungting Hu, being only 220 miles in circumference. The coasts of China are lined throughout with multitudes of islands and rocky islets. Towards the north they are low and full of shoals. There are comparatively few good harbors. PUBLIC WORKS OF CHINA.-These are very remarkable, and partake more of the useful than of the beautiful. They exhibit, however, in their construction, a lack of science and skill, which we might expect in a semi-enlightened race. The great wall naturally attracts attention first. It is called by the Chinese Wanli-Chang, or Myriad-mile Wall. It was built by Tsin Chi-kwongti, about 220 B. C., in order to protect his dominions from the northern tribes. It begins on the coast of Shanghai-wei, in lat. 40° 4' N. As seen by Lord Jocelyn from the English ships, it appears as "scaling the precipices and topping the craggy hills of the country, which have along the coast a most desolate appearance." Before terminating it runs along the shore several miles, and finally stops on the beach near a long reef. At its gates are garrisons and trading marts. In some parts it is double, a second wall branching off, inclosing a tract of country, and returning to the main wall again. The entire length of the wall, as estimated by McCulloch, is 1,250 miles. The construction is not uniform throughout its whole extent. The east ern part is generally composed of a mound of earth and pebbles, faced with masonry, supported on a coping of stone, the whole being about 25 feet thick at the base, and 15 at the top, and of a height varying from 15 to 30 feet. The top is terraced with tiles, and defended by a slight parapet, the thinness of which has been taken as a proof that cannon were unknown at the time it was erected. There are brick towers at intervals, some of them more than 40 feet high, but generally a little less. They are not built upon the wall, but are independent structures, usually about 40 feet square at the base, diminishing to 30 at the top. At particular spots they are of two stories, and then they are about 50 feet high.* According to M. Gerbillon, the Great Wall beyond the Yellow River to its extremity, is chiefly a mound of earth or gravel about fifteen feet high, with only occasional towers of brick, and gateways of stone. The Chinese wall is carried over the tops of the highest mountains, and down their steep sides into the deepest valleys, * Williams's China, vol. i, pp. 26-27. and continued' by bridges over rivers. The entire wall is said to have been completed in ten years, without the forced labor of the people. The next great public work of China is the Grand Canal, or Chab-ho, as the Chinese call it, that is, River of Floodgates; also Yun-ho, Transit River. Considering by whom and when this great work was constructed, it reflects the highest credit upon the Chinese nation. It connects Peking with Canton, and af fords an easy communication to many other large places, with the great capital The canal properly commences at Linsing-chan, in Shantung, in lat. 37 N. and long. 116° E., though the northern extremity is usually placed at Tientsinfu, near Peking. The canal, in many places is only a natural river modified and regulated by sluices and embankments. There is a current constantly flowing. The canal crosses the Yellow river about 70 miles from its mouth, or rather flows into it; for the artificial level on both sides is much above the natural. The canal runs nearly parallel with the Hoang-ho for more than one hundred miles. The crossing of the Hoang-ho or Yellow River is a matter of some difficulty; for the canal on both sides being higher than the river, its waters rush down into it "like a millrace." To pass from the canal to the river is easy; but to enter the canal again is extremely difficult. The Chinese have no knowledge of the art of con structing locks for canals. The boats entering the canal have to be dragged up the rapid current, at the entrance, by means of ropes attached to immense windlasses worked at the head of the rapids. The crossing of the Hoang-ho is a matter of so much difficulty that it is never undertaken without a certain round of religious ceremonies. Mr. Barrow in his work says that the boatmen in every boat sacrifice a fowl and a pig, or some other animals, and daub the blood and hair upon the principal parts of the vessel. When they arrive at the middle of the stream, the captain pours out upon the waters an oblation of spirits, oil, salt, rice, meats, &c., to the Dragon King, while a man at his side beats a gong violently, and others burn fire-crackers and gilt-paper. On reaching the opposite side of the stream, the Dragon King + Williams's China, vol. i., p. 27. Crossing of the Hoang-ho-Filthiness of the People. is again addressed in a volley of crackers, as a token of thanks for his propitious aid, and the captain and crew feast on the offerings undoubtedly the most agreeable part of the whole ceremony. The canal between the Yellow and Blue rivers, a distance of 90 miles, is constructed on the top of an artificial embankment kept together by walls of stone, except near the commencement, where an old bed of the Yellow river is used. The canal is thus elevated about 20 feet above the surrounding country, in some parts. It is about 200 feet wide, and has a current of about 3 miles an hour. The route is along the lowest districts so as to drain the country as much as possible. Several large towns and cities are situated along its banks; but being lower than the canal are in constant danger of being submerged. The repair of the embankments annually demands a vast expenditure of the government. The portion of the canal between the Yellow and Blue rivers was constructed in the 7th century by the princes of the Tang dynasty; all that part north of the Yellow river was made by the Mongols in the 13th century; and the extreme southern portion, that is, from the Blue river to the southern terminus at Hang-chou-fu, was completed by the Chinese under the Ming dynasty, in the 14th century. The entire length of the Imperial Canal of China is 650 miles, or nearly twice the length of the Erie Canal, but its great width cannot be compared with that of any other canal. In some places the excavations to obtain a level are 70 feet; and the embankments are 100 feet thick. There is much rudeness exhibited in the construction, but still the object of the canal is fully attained. There are several other canals in China, but there is little known concerning them. Many of them were made less for commercial than for draining purposes. One, for carrying off the waters of the Yellow river, is 100 miles long. The public roads of China are not entirely neglected. M. De Guignes, who traveled 600 leagues in China, says, that he found many good roads, most of them wide and planted with trees, though not generally paved. In some parts he found paved roads in good condition. The roads about Peking are paved with stone slabs, and kept in good order. "Generally speaking, however," says he, "as 343 is the case with most things in China, the roads are not well repaired." Passes through the mountains have been cut in many parts of China to facilitate transit. Three mountain passes traverse the Nan-ling mountain; one, north of Canton, according to Sir Geo. Staunton, rises 8,000 feet above the sea; yet vast quantities of goods are conveyed over this pass from Canton to the interior by coolies or porters. The Pe-ling and Ta-pa-ling ranges of mountains are overcome by an artificial road, sometimes conducting over yawning cliffs, by means of arches, and sometimes deeply cut through high mountains, the length of the whole road being 150 miles. In short, whenever intercourse is found expedient between any two parts of China, no natural impediments have been suffered to obstruct communication. The Chinese have found no labor, expense, or impediments, too gigantic to be undertaken. GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE COUNTRY.-The districts on the sea-coast, says Mr. Gutzlaff,† are generally the best inhabited and richest; the tracts along the Blue river the most fertile. Large and flourishing cities are found only where a ready water communication with other parts of the empire can be carried on. The greatest sameness exists. In the larger ones are a few well-paved streets, lined with shops; but the greater part of the streets are very narrow, usually about eight feet wide, extremely filthy, and planted with mere hovels. The suburbs of many cities are much larger than the cities themselves; and it is by no means extraordinary to see an immense walled space, with no houses, where formerly a city stood. Villages and hamlets have a beautiful appearance at a distance, usually embowered among trees, between which the whitewashed houses look prettily, but on entering them, one sees nothing but a heap of houses irregularly thrown together, the outside fair to behold, but the inside without furniture or comforts, and more filthy even than a stable. This, says Mr. Gutzlaff, does not apply to one district only, but it is common to most. Every thing in the villages presents an appearance of general decay, for a Chinaman seldom repairs his house before it is dilapidated. Elegance or ornament, orderly arrangement, or grandeur of de Voyages à Peking, vol. ii., p. 214. + China Opened, vol. i., pp. 57-8. |