Denominations of Money-Bank-notes-Industrial Occupations. 357 black characters. On the back are the save life, and vast numbers die of hunindorsements of various individuals who have received the bill.* ger. The Chinese are rather gardeners, says Mr. Williams, than farmers, not only in the small size of their grounds, but in their ignorance of those operations whereby soils naturally unfruitful are made fertile. Scientific agriculture is unknown to them. PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY.-The industry of the Chinese is proverbial. Every foot of the soil is tilled, except where the lands require draining, an operation which the Chinese do not practice, and hence vast tracts of land lie uncultivated, in spite of the dense population. Agriculture The annual ceremony of plowing is holds the first place in their estimation, of very ancient origin in China. At Peand hence the high honors paid to it by king it consists in plowing a sacred field the emperor, in holding the plow public with a highly ornamented plow, kept ly once a year. All of the instruments for the purpose, the emperor holding it of the Chinese, whether of agriculture or while turning over three furrows, the of the arts, are extremely rude, and of princes five, and the high ministers nine. the most primitive character. Centuries These furrows were, however, so short, have passed by without their making that the monarchs of the present dynasthe slightest improvement either in their ty altered the ancient rule, plowing four utensils or in the arts. Progress is a thing furrows and returning again over the unknown to them; and indeed the very ground. The ceremony finished, the emletter and spirit of their laws forbid it. peror and his ministers repair to the terIt is a great misfortune of the Chinese race, and there remain till the whole that they believe themselves arrived at field has been plowed. The ground beperfection. With instruments so rude, it longs to the temples of Heaven and is astonishing that they are still enabled Earth, on the south of the city, and the to produce so many exquisitely wrought crop of wheat raised in the sacred field productions; but their patience and en- is used in idolatrous services. The rank during industry make up for the defi- of the actors renders the ceremony more ciency in their tools and their lack of sci- imposing at Peking, and the people of ence. A subdivision of labor always the capital make more of it than they leads to greater perfection in the arts; do in the provinces. A monstrous clay but owing to the smallness of their farms there is no room for the subdivision of employments. They spare no pains in the collection and preparation of manure, and they are superior to every other people in the irrigation of lands. By means of rude chain-pumps they draw water from the canals and rivers; whilst the highest mountains are cut into terraces so constructed as to retain the requisite quantity of water, and to allow what is superfluous to pass off. By these means and manuring they produce two crops a year without intermission. But notwithstanding their remarkable industry and economy, the bulk of the population have usually so little to spare, and are so completely without the ability to retrench in times of distress, or to resort to a less expensive species of food, that the failure of a crop always involves them in the extremity of want; and notwithstanding the supplies brought from other parts of the country, the famine produced is so great that all sorts of outrages on one another are committed to *Smith's China, p. 364. image of a cow is carried to the spot, pre The Chinese have ever been highly distinguished for their manufactures. The fabric of porcelain originated with them exclusively. The porcelain manufactures of Kingtehchin were established in A. D. 1004, and now furnish all the fine porcelain used in China and exported. Upwards of 1,000,000 of workmen † Williams's China, vol. ii., p. 108-9. La Chine Ouverte, p. 345-6. Chinese Repository, vols. ii., iii and v. are said to be employed at that place in tion of it is small. Morocco, buckskin and its manufacture. The exportation of chamois leather are unknown to them. porcelain ware from China is very an- Furs and skins are dressed by them very cient. Chinese snuff bottles have been soft for garments. The only woolen found in the tombs of Egypt, containing fabrics made by the Chinese, are felt quotations from a Chinese poet of the for the soles of shoes and winter hats, 12th century, showing that there was and a sort of rug or carpet. The art of communication between China and knitting is unknown. In carving the Egypt in the 10th or 11th centuries, be- Chinese excel. Fans, card-cases, and a fore China was known to Europeans. hundred other things are carved in wood, Rosellini states that he found a Chinese ivory and mother-of-pearl, in alto relievo, snuff bottle in a little palm-leaf basket,* with wonderful skill and elaborateness. with other objects of Egyptian manufacture, in a tomb whose date he places between 1800 B. C. and 1100 B. C. The date of their being deposited in the tombs is a question. The lacquered ware of China, though inferior to that of Japan, is very beautiful; but it is in the minute arts of carving and inlaying that the Chinese excel. The art of spinning and weaving was derived from China. Paper is the invention of the Chinese; also gunpowder, and the mariner's compass. The manufacture of silk is original among the Chinese. They ascribe the art of manufacturing it to Yuenfi, wife of the Emperor Hwangti, B. C. 2602. The Chinese, says De Guignes, attribute, like all other ancient nations, the invention of spinning to females. The Chinese are not unwilling to adopt foreign improvements. They have introduced three new manufactures during the present century, that of glass, bronze and Prussian blue; also watches and clocks; and a few ships on the Eu ropean plan have been built. The opium war learned them to make brass cannon. The art of printing has undergone little improvement in China. The pages of books are engraved upon blocks of wood, of the pear or plum tree. The blocks are about three-quarters of an inch thick, and planed for cutting on both sides. Two pages are usually cut on a side, with a heavy double line surrounding them. The title of the work, chap ter and page are cut between the pages. Marginal notes are placed at the top of the pages. Comments, when greatly The Chinese invented paper in the extended, occupy the upper part, sepa first century after Christ. They manu- rated from the text by a heavy line. facture it from a variety of substances. Scholia are interlined in the same col That kind of Chinese paper known by umn as the text, in characters of half us as rice paper, is manufactured from the size. Sometimes two works are the pith of a plant allied to the Artocarpus or bread-fruit. The pith is carefully taken out and cut into sheets. In the arts of metallurgy the Chinese enjoy only a mediocrity. The manufacture of The mode of working the blocks ready glass is carried on chiefly at Canton, and for the press, is as follows: The pages the gradual increase in its use for win- are first written out on thin paper, and dows, tumblers, lamps, &c., shows that then pasted upon the block face down the Chinese are quite willing to borrow wards. When the paper is perfectly dry whatever they discover useful, even on the block, it is carefully rubbed off from the outside barbarians. Looking- with the wetted finger, leaving every glasses are gradually taking the place character plainly delineated upon the of their metallic mirrors. The cutting and setting of hard precious stones is carried on to some extent. Lenses for spectacles they cut from quartz crystals. The Chinese excel in embroidery. Leather and its various manufactures are not so extensively used by them. Their leather is poor, and the entire consump His words are: "Ayant penétré dans un de ces trois tombeaux, j'y ai trouvé dans un petit panier tissu de feuilles de palmier," &c. printed together, one running through the volume on the upper half of the leaves, and separated from the lower half by heavy lines. block. The cutter then, with his chisels cuts away all the blank spots in and around the characters, to the depth of a line or more, after which the block is ready for the printer. Books in China are very cheap. The poorest can have them. Books of all sizes are printed, from 32mos. up to quartos, 14 inches square. A volume seldom contains more than 100 leaves, printed on one side. Imports and Exports—Foreign Consumption of Tea. The prices of books vary. A volume of 30 pages is sometimes afforded for one cent. The San Kwoh Chi, or History of the Three States, in 24 volumes, 12mo., printed on white paper, is usually sold for 75 cents or $1. Kanghi's Dictionary, in 21 volumes 8vo., on yellow paper, sells for $4; and all the nine Chinese classics can be bought for less than $2. Books are hawked about the streets, circulating libraries are carried from house to house, upon movable stands, and the shops of booksellers are frequent in large towns.* 359 United States are tea, silks, nankeens, TRADE OF CHINA.-The trade of China is for the most part internal, the country supplying most articles necessary for the subsistence or luxury of its inhabitants. The mode of trade is that of barter chiefly, owing to the nature of the circulating medium. Salt is an article of the most extensive trade. The English embassy found at Tiensing piles of it, which contained 600,000,000 lbs. The foreign trade of China is subject to troublesome restrictions, and is chiefly confined to the English and Americans. The principal items of export and import have not materially changed during the last century. The chief articles imported, are opium, rice, raw cotton, long-cloths, domestics and sheetings, ginseng, tin, lead, iron in bars, rods and hoops, and woolen goods. Other articles imported, are betel-nuts, edible birds'-nests, lignum vitæ, ivory, pepper, steel, tin, and wax. 1836.. Calicoes and chintzes are also imported. 1837 The chief exports are tea and silk, with the former of which China supplies 1840. The foreign conthe whole world. sumption of tea is estimated by Mr. 1843. Williams as follows: Our trade with China, since 1836 as given in De Bow's Industrial Resources,‡ has been as follows: Years. 1838. 1839. Imports. Exports. .$7,324,816 630,591.. 8,965,337 1,516,602. 4,764,536 1,533,601. 3,678,509 1,009,966. 6,640,829 1841 1,260,816 3,985,388 1842. 1,444,397 4,934,645 2,418,958. 4,385,566 1844. 1,756,941 4,931,255 1845 2,275,995.. 7,285,914 1,331.741 6,593,881 United States.. 18,000,000+ 1847 1,832,884 5,583,343 Netherlands. 2,000,000 1848 2,190,013. 8,083,496 Russia 5,000,000 1,583,224. 5,513,785 Germany 3,000,000 1,605,217 6,593,462 New South Wales.. 4,000,000 1851 2.485,287 7,065,144 Spain, France and elsewhere 3,000,000 66 China alone is estimated to consume annually 700,000,000 of pounds; but this, says Mr. Williams, is a mere guess. McCulloch estimates the average annual consumption of the whole world at about 60,000,000 of pounds. The chief imports from China into the - Williams's China, vol. i., pp. 477-479. In 1845 we imported 20,752,558 lbs. ; in 1846, (See De Bow's Industrial Re16,676,894 lbs. sources, vol. i., p. 324.) 1852. (Returns not published.) Our trade with China has suffered only one temporary interruption of peaceful relations since its commencement in 1784-that of 1821, when Terranora, a sailor on board of the American ship Emily, was judicially murdered by the Chinese magistrate Pwanyu, contrary to the forms of Chinese law. The American merchants at Whampoa protested against the proceedings, but without United States, authorized for the pur effect. The prisoner was strangled with- pose. It was also stipulated that all out a legal trial. It is very remarkable, questions of right of property, between that our "government, at Washington, Americans in China, should be subject never made the least move or remon- to our laws, and that China should not strance respecting this tragical affair, interfere in any questions arising bebut still left the commerce, lives and tween our citizens and those of other naproperty of American citizens in China tions not Chinese. We are also allowed wholly unprotected, and at the mercy of to apprehend in the Chinese territory all its rulers."* mutineers or deserters from American vessels; while, on the other hand, we are to deliver up all Chinese criminals when demanded by Chinese authorities. The treaty of Mr. Cushing, called the treaty of Wanghai, is to remain in force 12 years, or longer, at the option of the two governments. Not until the mission of Mr. Cushing to China, after a lapse of 60 years, had our government any official dealings with that of Peking. Our consuls at Canton were merely merchants, having no salary from our government, no funds to employ interpreters, when necessary, or any power over their countrymen; and they came and went without the least notice or acknowledgment from the Chinese. There are no very accurate data upon which to estimate the entire foreign trade of China, but it is believed to amount to about $100,000,000. Accord ing to McCulloch the trade of England alone with China, in 1838, amounted to £11,700,040 sterling. On the announcement of the treaty of Nanking, which terminated the opium war, our government deemed it a favorable moment for attempting official diThe great and most important of all plomatic intercourse with China; and the imports into China, as regards value, accordingly President Tyler dispatched is opium, although it is prohibited by the Hon. Caleb Cushing, as commissioner and envoy extraordinary on behalf of the United States, with an autograph letter to the emperor. Some obstacles were thrown in the way of his delivering the letter to his imperial majesty in person; but nevertheless he was received in a friendly manner by the imperial commissioner, Kiying, who was invested with extraordinary powers for the occasion. The treaty concluded embodied all the important stipulations of the two English treaties, and allowed us the entrance of the five trading ports, Shang-hai, Ning-po, Fou-tcheou, Amoy and Canton, on complying with the rules established by the Chinese government for the regulation of commerce. American citizens are also allowed by the treaty to construct, in the five ports, dwellings, store-houses, churches, cemeteries and hospitals; also freely to employ teachers and other literary assistance, and to purchase books in China. It was also stipulated that subjects of China and of the United States, guilty of any crime towards each other, should be tried by the laws of their respective governments. An American criminal in China is therefore only to be tried by the American consul, or other public functionary of the * Williams's China, vol. ii., p. 457. the government. In 1836, before the opium war, the quantity imported had risen to 26,018 chests, worth $17,106,903, which is probably the largest sum given for any raw article, by any one nation to another, if we except raw cotton furnished to Great Britain by the United States. Since the opium war the im portation of the article has been greater than before. The smuggling of it is reduced to a regular system, and carried on to a very great extent. The impor tation is still forbidden, under penalty of death; but the law on the subject is a dead letter. Opium is allowed to be raised in the provinces of China; and the efforts of the government to prevent its importation are very feeble. Public opinion in China is in favor of the legal ization of the trade. Before the opium war the question of legalizing the trade was discussed by the government, petitions having been presented for its legalization. The government hesitated at first, but finally, in consideration of the enormous evils resulting to the inhabitants from the use of the drug, the emperor resolved to make one more final effort to suppress the trade. Commissioner Lin was made the instrument for effecting the suppression. He ordered that all opium then on shore or in ships on the coast be inmediately deli United States Treaty-History of the Opium War. 361 vered up, at the same time forcibly de- attacked all vessels on the coast. Opium, taining Capt. Elliott, "chief superin- however, still continued to be sold, the tendent of the trade of British subjects Hong merchants, prefects and other offiin China," together with all the mer- cers aiding in all possible ways. Seeing chants of foreign countries. The orders that it could not be stopped, even comof Lin were, at first, but partially com- missioner Lin entered into an agreement plied with, but, finally, an order to Capt. with Capt. Elliott for continuing the Elliott, detained, had the desired effect. trade. Capt. Elliott had given security He immediately enjoined and required for its being carried on fairly, and the all of her majesty's subjects at Canton commissioner himself had signed the "forthwith to make a surrender to him agreement. But all the negotiations of all the opium under their respective were suddenly ruptured by the unauthorcontrol, to be delivered over to the go- ized entrance of one of the English ships vernment of China," promising indem- whose captain had signed the bond not nity by the British government. Such to return to the trade. Coercive meawas the substance of his circular, issued sures were now taken again against the at Canton on the 27th of March, 1839. English families at Macao; and Capt. The immediate effect was the surrender Elliott having proceeded thither to reof 20,291 chests, all foreigners being de- quest a withdrawal of the threats of the tained until the whole was delivered. Chinese, an engagement ensued beThe opium was on board of 22 vessels, tween two of the British ships and Adand Commissioner Lin superintended miral Kwan with a fleet of sixteen junks. the delivery in person. The market value The junks were all either sunk, blown of the opium, at the time, was about up, or scattered. Immediately after $9,000,000, and the cost price nearly this, on the 6th of December, 1839, Lin $11,000,000. Most of the foreign mer- declared all trade with the English at an chants of all nations signed a pledge, end. "not to deal in opium, nor to attempt to introduce it into the Chinese empire;" and the captains of most vessels signed a bond, demanded by Lin, not to bring in any more opium. Both the pledge and bond, however, were almost immediately violated, and the trade clandestinely renewed. To stop the sale and use among the people Lin resorted to the most violent measures. He executed several persons purposely before the factories, in order to strike terror both to foreigners and Chinese. An order from the emperor to destroy the opium delivered up was most thoroughly executed, not a particle of it being allowed to be purloined. A man was summarily executed for attempting to carry off only a small quantity. Commissioner Lin finding that, even whilst he was destroying the opium, the English and others had commenced the sale again, attempted to drive the ships from the coast by forbidding the inhabitants to supply them with provisions. This led to the first collision. Captain Elliott, seeing his boats stopped which he had sent on shore for provisions, fired the first gun in attack upon three junks that refused to convey to Lin his request for provisions except verbally. No great damage was done. The Chinese now Such was the commencement of the opium war, in which the Chinese were clearly in the right, since they had just the same right to prohibit the importation of opium into China as any other nation to prohibit an article; nor were they too severe on the English for violating the laws of their empire, and encouraging the citizens to violate them. The English, however, did not view the matter in this light; and the only question that now arose with them was, How shall we get our pay for the lost opium? Capt. Elliott very naturally suggested that the Chinese should be made to pay for it. The debate upon the subject in the British Parliament turned almost entirely upon the importance of the opium trade, leaving the wrong of the thing entirely out of the question. The majority were in favor of letting the war go on, simply because it was begun. Sir James Graham asserted that the governors of Canton had sanctioned the trade in opium; Sir George Staunton, that it would not be safe for British power in India if these insults were not checked, and that the Chinese had far exceeded in their recent efforts the previous acknowledged laws of the land. Dr. Lushington maintained that the connivance of the local rulers acquitted the smugglers; while Sir John Hobhouse, |