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section, the result of action of lower nervous centres, which are left temporarily uncontrolled as a consequence of temporary exhaustion of the highest or controlling centres. There is a duplex condition-(1) loss of consciousness, and (2) greatly increased automatic action.

Epileptic mania is acute temporary insanity; but there is a corresponding duplex condition in insanity ordinarily socalled; there is, negatively, defect of consciousness and positively slightly increased automatic action (delusions, illusions, &c.) In no case can syphilis be the direct cause of positive mental symptoms.

The Morbid Psychology of Criminals. By DAVID NICOLSON, M.B, &c., Medical Officer, Her Majesty's Convict Prison, Portsmouth.

(Concluded from page 31, vol. xxi.)

III.-STATES OF MENTAL EXALTATION.

1. Emotional Exaltation.

2. Delusional Exaltation.

"Look to the needle of your compass, I beseech you, good Sir Astrophel, and tell us, if you can, whence comes this storm ?"

We now come to the consideration of the last of the three forms of weakmindedness among prisoners. viz., states of mental exaltation. We looked upon the first form, simple mental weakness, as a state of "want of mind," a negative or irresponsive condition of mind. The second form, states of mental depression, we took as a condition in which there is general inertia of mind with a prominent activity (positive action) in the direction of painful depression.

In the third form, which we are now taking up, the mind may be said to be characterised by want of balance, with a predominating activity (positive action) in the direction of exaltation. These general and prevailing features of distinction are placed side by side simply with the view of facilitating the study of the three forms in their relation to one another. It will not be understood that any attempt is made so to define them as that one form will be exclusive of the other. Although the instances are numerous in which these general definitions, or points of contrast, are perfectly distinctive, it is not pretended that this distinctiveness is by

any means universal. I do not require of myself such strict accuracy of definition as would ensure complete exclusiveness; seeing that the latter would, in point of fact, be incorrect, and out of accordance with practical experience, whereby it is found that more than one form may be present in the history of the same case.

Taken generally, states of mental exaltation indicate the presence of an undue preponderance, in the way of excitement, of certain inferior and usually subordinate faculties of the mind-resulting in more or less violent gesticulatory movements of the body. These movements are the fundamental evidence of the disturbed condition of mind (of whatever degree) of which they are the outcome or product. They correspond with that "derangement of the motory side of the soul-life," which, according to Griesinger, characterises maniacal states. The same author shows* that the centre point of mania lies in the "tendency to an exaggerated psychical movement from within outwards, in an augmented energy and more extended range of the efforts, and in an extravagance of the will;" and we may safely take it that the same constitution, in a lesser degree, holds good with regard to states of mental exaltation which fall short of actual mania. At all events it is from these anomalous outward manifestations, taken in connection with certain external circumstances, or with some possible exciting cause, whether external or not, that we have to form an estimate regarding the extent of mental weakness or defect. The muscular commotion, whereby the mental excitation reveals itself, sometimes involves all the organs of movement; the intensity of the downward impulse being as it were generalised or diffused throughout the body. In this case the whole body is the seat of a seemingly aimless, convulsive move. ment; but the free extremities and the tongue are especially active. On the other hand, the muscular response to the internal emotion may be restricted to the limited area of definite, purposive action, as when a direct assault is made by one man upon another. The downward impulse in this case has all the advantage which centralization and more continuous intensity give it. Thus, a prisoner who is unable to" smother his feelings" of hate, rancour and vengeance, may primarily intend an assault upon his warder; but having just enough of the prudential element left in him, he aban dons his original intention, and discreetly avoids committing

"On Mental Diseases," p. 273.

himself in an evidently uneven contest, or in an action which would involve him in serious consequences. But the sequence of thought and action does not usually end here; the generated impulse must be expended; and he "vents his spleen" in such general and violent gesticulations and epithets as serve best to relieve the convulsive feelings within him, the emotional current being diffused through a wider and more harmless sphere of muscular activity.

But what is the mode of origin of the mental exaltation which gives birth and character to this physical agitation? It is twofold.

When speaking of criminal idiosyncracy (Journal for July, 1873), I pointed out the groundwork upon which the more marked psychoses of prisoners rest, and under the terms emotional display, and simple perverted ideation, I went into the rationale of the special and anomalous behaviour to which they give rise.

I endeavoured to show the relations existing between strong emotional conditions and certain inefficient or faulty states of reflection and volition; and I traced up the tendency to "fixation" of ideas, and to the growth of delusion more or less morbid in imprisoned criminals, a class of individuals of undoubted mental inferiority, and with a range of ideas greatly restricted by ignorance and present circumstances. It will not, therefore, I trust, be necessary for me to go over the same ground again. It is from these two primary peculiarities of temperament and mental constitution that the morbid." States of Exaltation" in prisoners take their origin, and those states are, therefore, of two kinds, viz., emotional, and delusional.

1. The mental excitement or exaltation, whatever its mode of outward expression, may be simply of an emotional character, and set going by some ordinary, or at last real transaction in which the individual has been engaged. Here the exaltation or emotional state arises in the ordinary or normal way, from an immediate contact with external circumstances-much in the same direct way as an inferior animal would respond to irritation and annoyance from without. The ideational or reasoning faculties are involved in the disturbance.

2. The mental exaltation and its consequences may be the response to some fanciful idea or to a delusion (speaking of special prison-delusions) arising in the mind of the individual himself, no real external transaction being necessary.

The centres of ideation are in this case the seat of disturbance. Although no outward occurrence is necessary as an exciting cause, yet, if any such does take place, its significance and relationship have been misconceived, and the ensuing fanciful or delusive ideas regarding it give rise to the emotional condition. In emotional exaltation there is an immediate response to some vis à fronte, some external circumstance. In delusional exaltation the immediate response is to some vis à tergo, some erroneous or delusive idea which may or may not be connected with an external circumstance.

Just as emotional display and simple perverted ideation are the most prominent of the mental peculiarities of criminals in prison, so are emotional exaltation and delusional exaltation the most frequent and prominent peculiarities among prisoners who require special treatment as being weakminded.

I have repeatedly pointed out the great extravagance of conduct, the violence, the destructiveness, and the utter heedlessness of propriety which are the outward manifestations during periods of mental excitement in prisoners. And there can be no doubt that, in a great many cases, prisoners who indulge in this line of conduct must be held as being for the time "out of themselves," as being beyond their own control, and therefore as being more or less deficient in that power of moral self-governance which most minds, with even less than average balance, are capable of exerting. The late Mr. Bruce Thomson, of Perth prison, alludes to this extravagant conduct in the following terms:-" To be without any distinct purpose guilty of violence such as described -to destroy cell furniture, smash dishes, assault officers, and the like, shews weakmindedness, self-control being entirely wanting. The name of prison-mania has been very properly applied to such stupid, motiveless misconduct." But while I admit the general applicability of this remark, yet I feel that we should be guarded against putting the whole of such conduct down to morbid weakmindedness peculiar to prisoners. Although often apparently "motiveless," and perhaps "without any distinct purpose," still misconduct of the sort is, in a certain number of cases, capable of explanation on natural grounds. Let us not forget that the imprisoned criminal is nevertheless human. Let us not be too exacting in regard of a high morality and sweetness of temper, under circumstances of restraint and

discipline, and even sometimes of positive annoyance and aggravation, such as few of us would "put up with." If a prisoner's temper gets the better of him when quarrelling with his warder, and if he is led on by his passion to strike, the mere sequence of mental and physical phenomena is nothing more than might be witnessed between any two men ; as when one private individual takes upon himself to "chastise" or "horsewhip" another. If the same occurrence takes place between a private soldier and his sergeant, disciplinary considerations alter the aspect of the case, and the soldier's conduct has to be judged on the code of official morality, i.e., by military law.

As between man and man there may have been in each of the three cases the same amount of irritation and aggravation leading up to the retaliating blow; but how greatly do circumstances modify our general conception of the bearings of the case! The blow struck during anger or excitement by the private individual, we may find excuse for, or even approve; in the case of the soldier we instinctively feel that he deserves punishment as having committed a grave offence against discipline, while with a prisoner we are very apt to look upon the act as evidence of a dangerous and absolutely vicious or morbid turn of mind; he is the dog with the "bad name," and he is treated accordingly.

Our convict prisons contain men, and women too, of the most dangerous and heartless class, and to me it has always seemed a great wonder that such restless and untamed spirits can be massed together under the strictest rule and discipline without more frequent displays of insubordination, irritation and violence. Disturbances and misdemeanours of any gravity are limited to a certain few who form but a small proportion of the criminal community in prison; even if some of the most desperate among them wish to make a violent assault, it is found that they are capable of exercising that control over themselves which motives of prudence suggest, and hence their moral inability is not so complete as might be supposed. Instead of making a personal assault, their violent feelings and propensities may find vent in the lesser evils of destruction of property and personal and filthy abuse.

However unreasonable the violent, emotional, and perverse behaviour of some criminals may seem, there is, in a considerable number of cases, a certain compensatory gratification at the bottom of it all; just as the spoilt child, when thwarted, shows itself to be silly, pettish, and destruc

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