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of the entablature is called the architrave or epistylium. The middle part is the frieze, which, from its usually containing sculpture, was called zophorus by the ancients. The upper or projecting part is the cornice. A pediment is the triangular face produced by the extremity of a roof. The middle or flat portion inclosed by the cornice of the pediment is called the tympanum. Pedestals for statues, erected on the summit and extremities of a pediment, are called acroteria. An attic is an upper part of a building, terminated at top by a horizontal line instead of a pediment. The different mouldings in architecture are described from their sections, or from the profile which they present when cut across. Of these, the torus is a convex moulding, the section of which is a semi-circle, or nearly so; the astragal is like the torus, but smaller; the ovalo is convex, but its outline is only the quarter of a circle; the echinus resembles the ovalo, but its outline is spiral, not circular; the scotia is a deep concave moulding; the cavetto is also a concave, and occupying but a quarter of a circle; the cymatium is an undulated moulding, of which the upper part is concave and the lower convex; the ogee or talon is an inverted cymatium; the fillet is a small square or flat moulding. In architectural measurement, a diameter means the width of a column at the base. A module is half a diameter. A minute is a sixtieth part of a diameter.

In representing edifices by drawings, architects make use of the plan, elevation, section, and perspective. The plan is a map or design of a horizontal surface, showing the ichnographic projection, or groundwork, with the relative position of walls, columns, doors, etc. The elevation is the orthographic projection of a front or vertical surface; this being represented, not as it is actually seen in perspective, but as it would appear if seen from an infinite distance. The section shows the interior of a building, supposing the part in front of an intersecting plane to be removed. The perspective shows the building as it actually appears to the eye, subject to the laws of scenographic perspective. The three former are used by architects for purposes of admeasurement; the latter is used also by painters, and is capable of bringing more than one side into the same view, as the eye actually perceives them. As the most approved features in modern architecture are derived from buildings which are more or less ancient, and as many of these buildings are now in too dilapidated a state to be easily copied, recourse is had to such initiative restorations, in drawings and models, as can be made out from the fragments and ruins which remain. In consequence of the known simplicity and regularity of most antique edifices, the task of restoration is less difficult than might be supposed. The groundwork, which is commonly extant, shows the length and breadth of the building, with the position of its walls, doors, and columns. A single column, whether standing or fallen, and a fragment of the entablature, furnish data from which the remainder of the colonnade, and the height of the main body, can be made out.

Grecian temples are well known to have been constructed in the form of an oblong square or parallelogram, having a colonnade or row of columns without, and a walled cell within. The part of the colonnade which formed the front portico was called the pronaos, and that which formed the back part the

posticus. There were, however, various kinds of temples, the styles of which differed; thus, the prostyle had a row of columns at one end only; the amphiprostyle had a row at each end; the peripteral had a row all round, with two inner ones at each end; and the dipteral had a double row all round, with two inner ones at each end, making the front three columns deep. The theater of the Greeks which was afterward copied by the Romans, was built in the form of a horseshoe, being semicir cular on one side and square on the other. The semicircular part, which contained the audience, was filled with concentric seats, ascending from the center to the outside. In the middle or bottom was a semicircular floor, called the orchestra. The opposite, or square part, contained the actors. Within this was erected, in front of the audience, a wall, ornamented with columns and sculpture, called the scena. The stage or floor between this part and the orchestra was called the proscenium. Upon this floor was often erected a movable wooden stage, called by the Romans pulpitum. The ancient theater was open to the sky, but a temporary awning was erected to shelter the audience from the sun and rain.

ORDERS.

Aided, doubtless, by the examples of Egyptian art, the Greeks gradually improved the style of architecture, and orig inated those distinctions which are now called the "Orders of Architecture." By this phrase is understood certain modes of proportioning and decorating the column and its entablature. They were in use during the best days of Greece and Rome, for a period of six or seven centuries. They were lost sight of in the dark ages, and again revived by the Italians at the time of the restoration of letters. The Greeks had three orders, called the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthan. These were adopted and modified by the Romans, who also added two others called the Tuscan and Composite.

The Doric Order.-This is the earliest of the Greek orders, and we see in it a noble simplicity on which subsequent orders were founded. One of the most correct examples is that given in Fig. 6. The shaft of the Doric column had no base, orna. mental or otherwise, but rose directly from the smooth pavement or stylobate. It had twenty flutings, which were superficial, and separated by angular edges. The perpendicular outline was nearly straight. The Doric capital was plain, being formed of a few annulets or rings, a large echinus, and a flat stone at top called the abacus. The architrave was plain; the frieze was intersected by oblong projections called triglyphs, di vided into three parts by vertical furrows, and or namented beneath by gutta, or drops. The spaces between the triglyphs were called metopes FIG. 6. and commonly contained sculptures. To have a just idea of the Doric, therefore, we must go back to the pure Grecian era. The finest examples are those of the temple of Theseus and the Parthenon (Fig. 7) at Athens. The Parthenon, which is now a complete ruin, has formed a model in modern architecture. It was built by the architect Ictinus, during the administration of Pericles, and its decorative sculp

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The Ionic Order.-In this order the shaft begins to lengthen, and to possess a degree of ornament, but still preserving a great degree of simplicity of outline. In the best examples, as represented in Fig. 8, the column was eight or nine diameters in height. It had a base often composed of a torus, a scotia, and a second torus, with intervening fillets. This is called the Attic base. Others were used in different parts of Greece. The capital of this order consisted of two parallel double scrolls, called volutes, occupying opposite sides, and supporting an abacus, which was nearly square, but moulded at its edges. These volutes have been considered as copied from ringlets of hair, or perhaps from the horns of Jupiter Ammon. The Ionic entablature consisted of an architrave and frieze, which were continuous or unbroken, and a cornice of various successive mouldings, at the lower part of which was often a row of dentels, or square teeth. The examples at Athens of the Ionic order were the temple of Erectheus, and the temple on the Ilissus, both now destroyed. Modern imitations are common in public edifices. The Corinthian order.-This was the lightest and most highly decorated of the Grecian orders. The base of the column resembled that of the Ionic, but was more complicated. The shaft was often ten diameters in height, and was fluted like the Ionic.

FIG. 8.

The capital was shaped like an inverted bell, and covered on the outside with two rows of leaves of the plant acanthus, above which were eight pairs of small volutes. Its abacus was moulded and concave on its sides, and truncated at the corners, with a flower on the center of each side. The entablature of the Corinthian order resembled that of the Ionic, but was more complicated and ornamented, and had, under the cornice, a row of large oblong projections, bearing a leaf or scroll on their under side, and called modillions. No vestiges of this order are now found in the remains of Corinth, and the most legitimate example at Athens is in the choragic monument of Lysicrates. The Corinthian order was much employed in the subsequent structures of Rome and its colonies. The finest Roman example of this order is that of

FIG. 9.

three columns in the Campo Vaccina, at Rome, which are commonly considered as the remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator. Caryatides.-The Greeks sometimes departed so far from the strict use of the orders as to introduce statues, in the place of columns, to support the entablature. Statues of slaves, heroes, and gods, appear to have been employed occasionally for this purpose. The principal specimen of this kind of architecture which remains, is in a portico called Pandroseum, attached to the temple of Erectheus at Athens, in which statues of Carian females, called Caryatides, are substituted for columns.

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ROMAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE. Roman architecture possessed no originality of any value; it was founded on copies of the Greek models, and these were modified to suit circumstances and tastes. The number of orders was augmented by the addition of the Tuscan and Composite.

Tuscan order.-This order is not unlike the Doric, and is chaste and elegant. As represented in Fig. 10, the shaft had a simple base, ornamented with one torus, and an astragal below the capital. The proportions were seven diameters in height. Its entablature, somewhat like the Ionic, consisted of plain running surfaces.

The Composite order.-Of this there were various kinds, differing less or more either in the ornaments of the column or in the entablature. The simplest of this hybrid order was that which we represent in Fig. 11, which may be observed to combine parts and proportions of the Doric, the Ionic, and the Tuscan.

FIG. 10.

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The temples of the Romans sometimes resembled those of the Greeks, but often differed from them. The Pantheon, which is the most perfectly preerved temple of the Augustan age, is a circular building, lighted only from an aperture in the dome, and having a Corinthian portico in front. The amphitheater differed from the theater, in being a completely circular or rather elliptical build. ing, filled on all sides with ascending seats for spectators, and leaving only the central spac, called the arena, for the cor FIG. II. batants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous structure of this kind. ducts were stone canals, supported on massive arcades, and conveying large streams of water for the supply of cities. The triumphal arches were commonly solid oblong structures ornamented with sculptures, and open with lofty arches for passengers below. The edifice of this kind most entire in the present day is the triumphal arch of Constantine, at Rome, represented in Fig. 13.

FIG. 12.

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The basilica of the Romans was a hall of justice, used also an exchange or place of meeting for merchants. It was lined on the inside with colonnades of two stories, or with two tiers of columns, one over the other. The earliest Christian churches at Rome were sometimes called basilica, from their possessing an internal colonnade. The monumental pillars were towers in the shape of a colamn on a pedestal, bearing a statue on the summit, which was approached by a spiral staircase within. Sometimes, however, the column was solid. The therma, or baths, were vast structures, in which multitudes of people could bathe at once. They were supplied with warm and cold water and fitted up with numerous rooms for purposes of exercise and recreation.

FIG. 13.

ITALIAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE.

After the dismemberment of the Roman empire, the arts degenerated so far that a custom became prevalent of erecting new buildings with the fragments of old ones, which were di

lapidated and torn down for the purpose. This gave rise to an irregular style of building, which continued to be imitated, especially in Italy, during the dark ages. It consisted of Grecian and Roman details, combined under new forms, and piled up into structures wholly unlike the unique originals. Hence the names Græco-Gothic and Romanesque architecture have been given to it. After this came the Italian style, which was professedly a revival of the classic styles of Greece and Rome, but adopted to new manners and wants-a kind of transition from ancient to modern times. Its great master was Andrea Palladio, a Venetian (born 1518-died 1580).

FIG. 14.

There is considerable variety and beauty in the foliate and other enrichments of an architectural character in many structures in Italy, but very little ornament enters into the columnar composition of Italian architecture. Friezes, iustead of being sculptured, are swollen; the shafts of columns are very seldom fluted, and their capitals are generally poor in the extreme; mouldings are indeed sometimes carved, but not often; rustic masonry, ill-formed festoons, and gouty balustrades, for the most part supply the place of chaste and classic orna

ments.

THE CHINESE STYLE.

The ancient Tartars and wandering shepherds of Asia appear to have lived from time immemorial in tents, a kind of habitation adapted to their erratic life. The Chinese have made the tent the elementary feature of their architecture; and of their

style any one may form an idea, by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon common China ware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made of canvas instead of wood. A Chinese portico is not unlike the awnings spread over shop windows in summer time. The veranda, sometimes copied in dwelling-houses, is a structure of this sort. The Chinese towers and pagodas have concave roofs, like awnings, projecting over their several stories. A representation of this barbaric style of erection is given in Fig. 15. Such structures are built with wood or brick; stone is seldom employed.

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FIG. 15.

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