prepositions, exactly as we have seen nouns attached, in paragraphs (2), (3), and (4), but showing their subordinate position to the subject, by being in the objective or accusative case; and the third, "won by observation," is a participle with an object expressive of means.

This participle is not formed in the same way as those were formed which we have before met with. "Perfect-ed" and "bound-ed" have been made by the addition of the final syllable; but "won" is formed by the change of the vowel in the verb "win." 17. The last paragraph (7) we thus arrange:

Here we have a predicate "read," and a considerable number of objects, but there is no subject; yet the sense is complete. There is, however, no assertion made by the verb; on the contrary, it conveys a command; and the subject, if expressed, would not occupy the customary place to the left of the predicate, but would come between it and the objects. Grammarians distinguish the forms of verbs which signify commands as the imperative mood. The four principal groups of objects belong to one and the same class, that which expresses the purpose or design of the action; and they are so combined by the conjunctions, "nor" and "but," as to enable a single verb to act as predicate to them all. The conjunction, "nor," serves to give to the second and third groups the same negative character that is imparted to the first by the negative object "not; " and the fourth is contrasted with all the preceding groups, as stating the design that should be kept in view in reading, by the use of "but.”

In the expression, "to take for granted," we have a participle attached to a verb by means of a preposition, as an object needful to complete it; and the next group shows two nouns, 66 talk and discourse," combined by the conjunction "and," so as to spare the repetition of the verb "to find," to which they both serve as "objects."

18. From this illustration, extending only to seven paragraphs-and those neither long nor very greatly complicated-may be seen, both what English grammar actually is, and what a large and clear knowledge of its facts and laws may be attained by the plan of study which we have recommended. It may also be seen how completely language is the product and representation of the thought or meaning of those who speak or write; and how subordinate is the office of the grammarian-limited, in fact, to the elucidation and interpretation of the forms and principles of language, by the most general laws and forms of thought. For not only cannot the grammarian determine what forms shall be used, and what discountenanced and avoided; but he cannot possibly frame his declensions and conjugations, his concords and governments, so as to provide a place for every combination and inflexion and mode of giving expression to the infinitely diversified shades of meaning, even in the language of common life.

19. The following example will show how easy it is to analyze and arrange the most complicated paragraphs, so as to exhibit, without the employment of a single technical term, every fact both of Etymology and Syntax contained in it. The passage is from Locke's "Essay concerning Human Understanding." Book iv., chap. i., § 1.

"God, having designed man for a sociable creature, made him not only with an inclination, and under a necessity, to have fellowship with those of his own kind, but furnished him also with language, which was to be the great instrument and common tie of society."

RAMMAR is divided into two partsone which treats of the classification, formation, derivation, and inflection of words by themselves, and is called Etymology; and another, which treats of the combination of words into sentences, &c.,

and is called Syntax.

When languages are analyzed in any state already reached, and not in a state of transition, they become the subject of special grammar belonging to the province of linguistics. Comparative grammar seeks, by comparing the grammars of several languages, to reach the laws of inflection and construction common to them, and finally to all languages. General or historic grammar attempts to explain the growth of language within a specified group.

In this short treatise the formation and derivation of words are not included under Etymology, but are added by way of illustration to the concise History of the English Language, which forms the concluding portion of it. By this means, not only is some repetition spared, but, being disencumbered of that which is rather curious than useful, this Etymology is rendered more serviceable to those for whom it is specially intended.

Both Etymology and Syntax, it must be observed, are arranged, in the first place, with a view to assist in a study of the English language; and next, to present such an elucidation of its principal facts, and such an interpretation of its most important laws, as shall give to those who consider them attentively, some real and practical knowledge of their own tongue. And with the same intent, those technicalities only have been introduced, and those examples selected, which might be expected to aid in the simplification and explanation of the subject.

ETYMOLOGY?

LETTERS, ETC.

2. There are twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet; which have always been arranged in the following order, and are of these forms in Roman type: A a, B b, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, G g, H h, I i, Jj, Kk, L 1, M m, N n, O o, P p, Qq, Rr, S s, Tt, Uu, V v, W w, X x, Y y, z z. Z

The number of sounds to be represented by these letters is estimated at about forty; and, in consequence, several of them have to stand for more sounds than one. It is somewhat remarkable that since this is the case, the letters c, q, and x should be superfluous; the two sounds of being repre sented by s and k, as in cell, sell; calends, kalends; 9, being always followed by u, with the sound expressible by kw; and the sounds of x differing in no respect from those of ks, gz, and z (in some words borrowed from the French). It would be of considerable advantage, if symbols for the sounds represented now by the combinations of letters, ch, sh, th, ng, &c., could be devised and introduced; but this is a matter of such great difficulty, as to be almost impossible.

3. The twenty-six letters are divided into two classes-Vowels and Consonants. The vowels are, a, e, i, o, u; and with them w andy ought to be placed. They represent the sounds which are produced by the transmission of the voice through the mouth, whilst the cavity is more or less enlarged in different directions. All the rest are named con

sonants, and represent the sounds produced when the voice is interrupted by the voluntary action of the throat, tongue, palate, nose, teeth, and lips.

Our vowel sounds differ from those of all other languages of Europe; one of the sounds which we express by a, they express by e; where we write e, they write i; where we use i, they employ ei; and our u corresponds with their eu. The natural series of vowel sounds, expressed in letters of our alphabet, is

ee, ay, ah, oh, oo.

The combinations of vowel sounds, called diphthongs and triphthongs, such as ae, ai, au, ei, ie, oe, oi, ou, eau, &c., express the intermediate sounds of this series, but they also do not correspond with those of the other European languages.

4. Consonants are divided into three orders, Mutes, Sibilants and Liquids; and these are further subdivided according to the organs employed in giving utterance to them. Thus the mutes are classified first as Smooth or Aspirated, and next in the following manner; the sounds for which we have no symbols being inserted in their proper places :

others are compounded of such sounds. Thus the sound of the word buoy is identical with that of boy; and in "adhesive," the sound d is pronounced dis tinctly, and followed by the aspirate, or hard breath. ing h

DERIVATION AND FORMATION OF WORDS.

With the History of our Tongue, which follows this Grammar, the subject is illustrated so as to show the relation of the English language to other languages, which have formerly existed, or are spoken at the present day. Here only the "internal relations" of words are regarded; and the sole purpose is the illustration of the manner in which, from the radical words, wherein may be traced the ethnological connections of the English race, other words have in various ways been formed by the natural_vitality and power of the language.

7. Radical words (called by etymologists "roots," simply) are either nouns, verbs, adjectives, or pronouns; expressive of common things, conditions, actions, &c., &c. Primary Derivatives are constructed by slight changes in the vowel sounds, or in the consonants or in both; and are sometimes designated "stems." stems." Secondary Derivatives are formed by means of prefixes and affixes, from both roots and primary derivatives. Ex.

The sibilants may be classified thus:

8. Derivative words are also formed by composition; that is, by the construction of a single word out of two or more words, each capable of being used independently. These compounds differ entirely from the secondary derivatives, and are found in every class of English words. They are not, however, so numerous in our tongue as in the German; and in that they are less common than in the Greek language. Ex. Sunshine, fairhaired, thunderstorm, harvestman, daybreak, nevertheless, therefore, into, everlasting, midnight, noontime, elsewhere, however, undersell, overturn, because, hedgerow, warehouseman, earthquake, steamengine, railroad.

CLASSES OF WORDS.

9. The classification of words depends upon their signification as parts of sentences, which will be treated of under the head of "Syntax." The fol- | lowing will, however, suffice as an introduction to this part of the Grammar; and the nature of Subjects and Predicates, Attributives and Objects, with the various means of expressing the relations between them, will be treated of in the succeeding division.

Names of things, persons, and of whatever exists, even in imagination, are called Nouns, and sometimes Substantives. Ex. Tree, stone; man, boy; Cæsar, Wellington; virtue, hope.

Words expressing an assertion respecting an action or condition, or the reception of the consequences of an action, or simply respecting existence,

Attributives which can only in figurative language be used without a noun (which they qualify in some way) are called Adjectives. Ex. Good, bad, green, high, everlasting.

These are the three principal classes of words, which represent distinct notions of things, persons, actions, qualities, &c., &c., formed in the mind. Other words express not so much the notions we have formed, as the connection of those notions with each other, or their relations to us, or some of the infinitely various associations of thoughts.

10. Pronouns serve not only to prevent the too frequent repetition of the same nouns, but yet more to indicate the relation of the persons or things spoken of to the speaker. Such are the Personal Pronouns. Others are used as attributives, but they also show the relations of the subjects they characterize to the speaker. Ex. I, thou, he, they; mine, thine; this, those; whom, what.

Whatever exists, or acts, or is acted upon, is regarded as being, or acting, or being acted on, in some particular time, place, manner, &c.; and these modifications of the simple notions indicated by the verb are expressed by a class of words called Adverbs. Ex. Now, where, so, seldom, perhaps.

Many of the relations of notions one to another, also, are those of place, time, manner, means, &c.; and these are expressed by words called .Prepositions, which serve to connect nouns and pronouns with other nouns and pronouns, and with verbs. Ex. From, by, of, to, after.

The connection of things, &c., with each other, and of thoughts with other thoughts, is shown by means of Conjunctions. Ex. And, or, but, though, for.

Numerals are in part names, and in part attributives and adverbs; and therefore do not properly form a class by themselves. Ex. Two, four, six; first, tenth, hundredth; firstly, secondly, lastly.

Interjections, which are expressions of emotion, such as fear, joy, pain, wonder, &c., and not of thought, and the greater number of which are rather sounds than words, cannot be noticed in a grammar; although it is convenient to have such a class to which certain expressions which occur in the Dictionary may be referred. Ex. Ah! O! Ha!

II. Nouns. The Gender of Nouns is determined

by the sex of the persons or beings they represent, being called Masculine or Feminine, as they are the names of males or females. Beings without natural sex, things without life, and abstractions are called | Neuter.

Figuratively, sex is attributed to many beings naturally having no such distinction, and to abstractions. Ex. The sun, he is setting; the moon, she is rising; Charity, she is the child of heaven. Very small beings, whatever sex they may be of, and those whose sex is not their distinctive characteristic, are spoken of as neuter. Ex. The ant, it is a patron of foresight and prudence; the child, it knows not what it does.

Very few words, in English, have terminations, or other specialties of form, indicative of their gender; the following are examples of the only kinds, and they are not numerous. Ex. Arbiter, Arbitress; Prosecutor, Prosecutrix; Margrave, Margravine ; he-bear, she-bear; Man-servant, Maid-servant. In other instances different words are appropriated to the two sexes, but without any peculiarity of termination. Ex. Brother, Sister; Horse, Mare; King, Queen.

12. The only distinction of Number is that between one and more than one; the ordinary forms expressing the former, and being called Singular; and special forms being used for the latter, called Plural.

Most commonly, s or (when it ends in a sibilant or x) es is added to the singular. Ex. Sword, swords; fish, fishes. Words ending in for fe generally make their plurals in ves. Ex. Calf, calves; life, lives. But all words ending in ff, except staff. staves, and several words in for fe, add s without any change of letters for the plural. Ex. Whiff, whiffs; grief, griefs; fife, fifes. Those ending in o, preceded by a vowel, add s only; but if a consonant precede the o, s or es is added. Ex. Cameo, cameos; ratio, ratios; cargo, cargoes; volcano, volcanoes; portico, porticoes; solo, solos. Words ending in y after a consonant have ies in the plural. Ex. fly, flies; history, histories.

A very few change the vowel sound of the singular. Ex. Foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; woman, women (pronounced wimmen). One adds en to the singular-ox, oxen. One both changes the vowel and adds en-brother, brethren.

Besides these, the following must be noted: Child

makes children in the plural. Mouse has mice, and louse, lice; but it is the spelling only which is peculiar. Penny has two plurals; when coins are meant, pennies, but when money is spoken of, pence. In like manner die, signifying a stamp for coining, has dies; but when it means a cube used in play, dice. Pea has peas and pease, the latter signifying peas collectively, or used for food. Kine is sometimes used as a plural to cow.

Deer, sheep, swine, are used in both numbers; and (when spoken of as food) fish, cod, salmon, &c. The names of metals are made plural only when employed to signify some particular things composed of them. Ex. Irons, coppers, brasses. Articles of trade and commerce which, in ordinary language, are never used in the plural form, have plural forms in the market. Ex. Cloth, oil, sugar, tea, &c. On the other hand, beast, which has a regular and commonly used plural, is employed in the singular form alone by Smithfield salesmen. Words signifying abstract qualities seldom take the plural form, because they cannot have a plural meaning, except when used figuratively. Ex. The honors of the world; the decencies of life. Names of measures, weights, of some numbers, and of terms employed numerically, are in some instances used in the singular form, with a plural meaning. Ex. A ten-pound note, eighteen hundred and fifty-eight, an army of eighty thousand men, twelve dozen of wine, three brace of dogs, a fleet of twenty sail, twelve thousand. foot and three thousand horse, fifteen thousand stand of arms, a hundred head of cattle, each weighing thirty stone.

Alms, means, news, pains, and riches, which are plural in form, are used both as singulars and as plurals. Ashes, bellows, breeches, cates, dregs, gallows, pincers, scissors, and tongs, have no singulars, either in form or meaning. The names of some sciences, derived from the Greek language, are plural in form, but in meaning singular. Ex. Ethics, hydrostatics, mathematics, mechanics, politics. And so is the term morals. Suds, and wages, plural in form, are singu→ lar in signification; and pulse (leguminous seeds), also plural in form, is simply collective in its meaning.

13. Almost all nouns, which have been simply adopted from foreign languages, retain their original plurals; but some have also plurals formed in the English fashion, and in a few instances with a dif