breeding purposes females with narrow, contracted chests, weak loins, or delicate constitutions. Prepotency of particular breeds and of particular animals, was worthy the consideration of the careful breeder. Prepotency occurred in either sex, but was usually most developed in the male. Amongst horses, some of the best thorough-bred families, and shorthorns amongst cattle tribes, were notably prepotent, and when crossed with Herefords and longhorns, speedily wiped out, as it were, their specialties. Not only was the habitual and dynamic state of parents transmitted to their offspring, but he had noticed that the produce of worn out mares and cows shewed constitutional debility, and were difficult to

cross-breds. The first crosses between the shorthorn and West Highland or polled cow were generally admirable butchers' beasts, following the sire in size and precocity, and the dam in hardiness as well as fine quality of meat. But with neither of the parent stocks did those cross-breds pair satisfactorily. It required at least four or five generations of judicious crossing and liberal drafting to obtain the uniformity of either of the parent breeds. The careful matching of different varieties of animals, with subsequent judicious selection, had evidently been the means whence had been produced some of the most valuable domestic animals, such, for example, as the race horse and Cleveland bays, the Galloways, the shorthorns and Herefords, and within the present century, the Hampshire, Wiltshire, Shropshire, and Oxfordshire Downs. In judicious and practical hands, extreme crossing had occasionally been serviceable; but the produce of many of the earlier generations were by no means wanted, and required to be weeded out.

may have some influence on the late crops of grass; but where the fields were shut up early, and the clover and grasses are fully in flower, there is no use in waiting, as what is gained in bottom is lost in top and quality. After a certain time, viz., when the seed is being formed, the soluble juices become gradually converted into insoluble fibre, and the feeding quality of the hay is much reduced. Those who market their produce are aware of the importance of early cutting, whereas the arable farmer who does not sell hay is often either so ignorant or careless as to halfspoil his crop by leaving it till over-ripe. In the same way, the science of haymaking is best understood and most carefully attended

to secure as much as possible dried grass rather than bleached hay. The grass farmers in the neighbourhood of London long enjoyed a reputation for their skill in haymaking; the great secret of success consisting in the continual moving of the grass, so that, however scorching the weather, it was never left to bake and bleach on one side. Immediately following the mowers, the hands (literally in some parts of Yorkshire) throw out the grass, taking care to break every lock. Depending upon weather, it was either lightly thrown over again so as to reverse the face, or else got into hacks with the rakes preparatory to being put into little bunches or grass cocks, from which point it was brought into closer

quarters at each operation. In fast weather the grass mown overnight would be in grass cocks before it was left. The second day would see it thrown from the grass cocks lightly into beds, and most carefully turned preparatory to being made into medium-sized cocks; not bundled and rolled up together as we have sometimes seen, but made with care and left light, so that the air can penetrate; and when the dry grass is thus put together with the sun in it, the process of haying goes on quite as rapidly during the night as in the day. The ground was carefully raked, the bottoms of the cocks cleaned round, and everything left so tidy and shipshape that the least damage would follow a shower of rain. On the third morning an early and careful examination of the cocks should be made whilst the dew is still on the ground. We shall be amply rewarded for our industry; the aroma is most agreeable, and there is a freshness and beauty about an early summer morning never forgotten by those who have experienced it. It is now under the influence of the moistened surface that we can best judge of the progress of our grass towards the stack. A good and safe test is the presence of juice in the stem. If we take a lock and twist it tightly into a rope without moisture exuding, it proves that the juices are sufficiently dried; if, on the other hand, moisture exudes, more time is required. It will be very good weather for making to allow of the grass being stacked on the third day. In very bright and quick weather the the inexperienced make mistakes, being deceived in the apparent dryness of the crops, whereas it is only scorched on the surface, and the juices undried will make the grass come again when put into bulk. Hence it is an old saying that more hay is spoiled in fine than in wet weather. We believe that the early morning examination would prevent many mistakes. Supposing, as is probable, that more time is necessary, the cocks must be thrown out as soon as the ground is thoroughly dry, taking care to bring about three into one bed, so that when the necessary drying has been effected, the whole may be put into one large carefully made cock, and either carried out

4I

of cock on the fourth day, or first thrown over, so as to dry the bottom, which comes in contact with the ground.

Such is a sketch of the practice formerly pursued in those localities where hay is most valuable. The cost or scarcity of labour now necessitates the use of machinery. Thanks to the perfection of mowing machines, hay makers, and hay rakes, half at least the labour is saved, and the work is done most creditably. It is very seldom we can make machinery actually as efficient as manual labour. The success lies in the reduction of cost consequent on the greater rapidity of execution. The mowing machine is perhaps the most perfect machine introduced into farm practice, because it actually cuts closer and more evenly than the best scythe-man, and when it is remembered that each machine represents the force of from eight to ten lusty men, the economy in such power is manifest. If the land is well manured and the seasons are favourable, we may look for a crop whether we cut with a machine or a scythe. It is not within the compass of our present limits to go into the question as to which is the best machine; and indeed such is the perfection that has been arrived at, and so keen the competition, that we are tolerably safe in dealing with any of the leading makers. If our land be rough and uneven, we must consider strength rather than lightness; when the ground is well rolled and level, we may use a lighter machine.

The hay spreader is quite as important as the mower. This is a much more antient invention, which, however, has been greatly improved of late years. Formerly, the teeth or forks revolved only in one direction, viz., the reverse of the driving wheels, and the only action was to take the grass underneath, throw it overhead, and leave it scattered behind. This is still the first and principal operation, and the only way in which a heavy crop can be properly distributed and divided ; but after the grass has been partially withered, it becomes, especially the leguminous plants, somewhat brittle. A second throwing about would cause considerable loss; hence the back action becomes of great value. The

gearing is altered, and the teeth revolve in the same direction as the main wheels, and so the back part of the tines comes in contact with the grass, which is pushed up, partially turned over, and left very light. Now, if these two observations are carefully performed, we venture to assert that the result is nearly equal to hand labour in efficiency, and effects a great saving of labour; a lad and a strong active horse will go over 10 acres of a heavy crop per day. Comparing machine work with hand labour, the haymaker is put across the swathes cut the day before (it is quite as well to lie a few hours as cut, if the weather is fine), and after lying three or four hours, it is subjected to the back action. The weather being settled, it may remain, thus lightened up, all abroad during the first night. As soon as the dew is off on second day, the grass must be put into rows by the horse rake or hay collector. The modern rakes are adjustable as to the angle of their tines, and hence are qualified to act either as hay collectors or as horse rakes proper. Formerly, if they raked well, they gathered up the dirt, stones, &c., and spoilt the hay; hence they were not much used. The hay is now put into rows, women follow the collector, and break out the rows into light beds, in which the grass makes very fast.

This is the last assistance we can expect from the machines, and having aided us so far on our way, the remainder of the work, viz., the cocking-first into medium and then into large cocks, with the intermediate beddings, &c.—is comparatively easy. When a large area has to be dealt with, it is important to keep the work going on in regular stages; thus, in our own case, with 120 acres of park to make, we like to cut down from 30

to 40 acres, putting on two machines, and as soon as we begin to lead, endeavour to cut each day as many acres as we can clear. The work is thus well in hand, and in the event of bad weather, we have less exposed. It is a dangerous practice to get too much down. We have known grass spoilt in the swathe, quite black and fusty, while the uncut portion, saving from age, was little affected. In some moist situations, in Ireland and the north-west counties of England particularly, so succulent is the grass and so precarious the weather, that the practice of summer ricking becomes almost a necessity, and is justified by experience. The work entails extra expense, and a certain quantity is injured; but it is the only safe system, and therefore to be strongly recommended. The plan is to put the hay into small round stacks, coming to a point at the apex, the produce of 1 or 2 acres in each. A sweep is used to collect the hay, which has been previously rowed up into convenient rows. The sweep consists of a frame-work in three parts, jointed, and reversible; a boy rides on and guides each horse. In this way a quantity of hay can be got together much more expeditiously than if it had to be loaded into and unloaded from carts. The hay remains three or four weeks in summer ricks, during which it passes through a fermentation, and may safely be put into a large stack afterwards. The quality of such hay is not so good as that which is put at once into the stack; but by choosing a fine time, and taking pains to mix the hay well on the stack, sprinkling a little salt over it, we shall get very good stuff. And there is this advantage, viz., that chimneys are not required, and hay is always spoilt adjoining an air-hole.-The Field.

43

L

AST season 11 acres of land, between King Street Road at Spital and the Links, belonging to Mrs Knight Erskine, of Pittodrie, which has been laid out for the purpose during the previous winter, were brought under sewage cultivation with very satisfactory results as regards the crops raised. And this year, under the care of Mr G. F. Cruickshank, factor on the property, a much larger extent of land has been prepared, and is now either cropped, or in process of being so, on the sewage system. The newly laidout ground is immediately northward of the II acres cropped last season, and extends from Ladymill, King Street, down to the margin of the Links. The extent is 36 acres, making in all a sewage farm of about about 47 acres.

The additional land to which we have referred has been laid out in accordance with a plan prepared by Mr George C. Roger, C.E. In the case of the smaller section laid out last year by the late Mr Anderson, C.E., the work was done by "day labour." This year Mr Roger issued specifications and readily found a good contractor to work them out; and the result thus far has been a very decided pecuniary saving with no less satisfactory workmanship. The newly laid out land is intersected lengthwise by a public road leading from King Street up the Old Town Links; and five service roads have been made, dividing it into six fields of manageable size; each of which is, of course, subdivided by branch carrier drains, and waste water runnels, for the purpose of flooding the several plotsthe main carrier which supplies the whole passing along by the side of the public road.

In laying out the land, the first thing to be done, after having it all thoroughly furrowdrained and trenched, was to proceed with levelling and formation of carriers. In addition to having the levels very carefully taken and marked on the plan, the sewage was brought gradually forward as the work pro

gressed, and as each plot was formed and the sluices adjusted and fixed, it was turned on. This served the double purpose of testing the levels, and administering a forcing manure to the newly stirred soil. From the care taken at the outset in taking levels, no difficulty whatever occurred in irrigating the different plots, though in numerous cases the flow of sewage from the main carrier turns either to the right or left, as may be wished, at the same point. The main carriers are laid with tiles fastened with cement in the bottom, which is rendered necessary by the rapidity with which the sewage water flows through them; in the case of the branch carriers where the descent is very little, and the flow sluggish, an open trench simply is required. The main waste water channels have been so arranged now that the waste water from the whole 47 acres is brought to a point in the Powis Burn at the extreme north-east corner.

In the laying out of the land, Mr Roger has kept clearly in view-what we think is a very important element-the conditions of soil and climate, and the character of the crops grown in Aberdeenshire generally; his practical knowledge of local agriculture enabling him to adjust operations accordingly. Some 6 acres have been sown down in Italian ryegrass, the plots occupied in this way having been earliest prepared, so as to lose no advantage in giving the young plants a start. Next, about 10 acres were planted in potatoes, which are just now coming into vigorous leaf. About 2 acres of Swedish turnips have been sown; and the remaining part of the land will be laid down in common turnips and other green crop.

The whole of the II acres irrigated last year have now been put in grass, of which there is a vigorous crop. A first cutting has already been taken off of a small part; and we may say there is quite a ready sale for the grass when fit for cutting.

In regard to the cost of laying out the

land now being brought under irrigation, in relation to probable returns, it would be as yet premature to speak. As we have frequently said in reference to the general question of sewage utilization, experience in each individual locality where sewage cultivation is attempted, must be a main element in directing to satisfactory results, whether as regards cost in laying out and management, or the

proper crops to be cultivated. In the present case, as we have indicated, a material saving has this year been effected in the matter of laying out. And in that respect, as well as others, the results on the Spital Farm will, we expect, by-and-by, form an important contribution to the solution of the general question of sewage farming in so far as Aberdeen is concerned.-Aberdeen Free Press.

MR

R Mechi writes to us, describing a visit on Thursday to Mr Hope, Breton's farm, at Hornchurch, 31⁄2 miles from Romford, from which town all its sewage flows through an 18-inch iron pipe, Mr Hope paying to the town 2s. per head, or £600 per annum, for 6000 inhabitants using closets; and the cost to the town of raising all the sewage 25 feet at Mr Hope's farm is, including coals, engine-driver's wages, and interest and wear and tear of engine, about £300 per annum. Mr Mechi says:— "My last visit to this farm, as recorded in your columns, was in September. Ever since then, in all weathers, the sewage has flowed constantly on the land, which consists of 120 acres of poor gravelly and sandy soil with occasional veins of stiffer scil. I saw the enginedriver and farm men looking as healthy as need be, although he and the four sewage regulators are for ten hours a-day in almost immediate contact with the sewage. There was the black sewage flowing over the land, and, after passing through it to the drains, 5 and 6 feet deep, coming out as clear as the finest spring water. The day was very warm, so we all had a hearty draught of it without any inconvenient result. Mr Hope uses it over again mixed with the sewage, except when there is heavy rain. It thus appears that, in his case, the flood or rain water mixed with the town sewage does not over-dilute it, although the question is arising whether the

sewage and flood waters of towns and cities should not be separated. I presume that would depend upon the nature of the soil to which it is to be applied, and also to the amount of town water supply. Every crop on the farm was looking the picture of healthy and abundant growth, and it was wonderful to see French beans growing on a portion of the land that was almost pure gravel. The temperature of the sewage during frost being many degrees above freezing, the irrigation after a night's frost melts the ice in the ground and enters the soil. Onions, carrots, cabbages, potatoes, strawberries, &c., were all promising, and a second cut of Italian rye-grass 2 feet to 3 feet long gave unmistakable evidence of the value of town sewage as a producer of food for man and beast. We are very much indebted to Mr Hope for permitting, so liberally, a view of these interesting proceedings. The Romford sewage amounts to about 250 gallons per minute, average of day and night. The engine, therefore, puts on about 600 gallons a-minute for ten hours. The engine-driver has 4s. a-day, and the engine consumes 11 cwt. of coal per day. The parish authorities attempted to rate Mr Hope on the amount he paid annually for the sewage, but on his saying that he was content with this provided they rated all the other farmers and market gardeners on the cost of their manure, they saw the impropriety of it."-Times.