land and in other countries, which had been maintained by the Wernerians to be of aqueous origin, were, principally by the sagacity and industry of Macculloch, identified as to their nature with the products of recent volcanoes, the amount of effect which might justifiably be ascribed to volcanic agency was materially extended.

In other cases, instead of observing the current effects of our geological causes, we have to estimate the results from what we know of the causes themselves; as when, with Herschel, we calculate the alterations in the temperature of the earth which astronomical changes may possibly produce; or when, with Fourier, we try to calculate the rate of cooling of the earth's surface, on the hypothesis of an incandescent central mass. In other cases, again, we are not able to calculate the effects of our causes rigorously, but estimate them as well as we can, partly by physical reasonings, and partly by comparison with such analogous cases as we can find in the present state of things. Thus Mr. Lyell infers the change of climate which would result if land were transferred from the neighbourhood of the poles to that of the equator, by reasonings on the power of land and water to contain and communicate heat, supported by a reference to the different actual climates of places, lying under the same latitude, but under different conditions as to the distribution of land and water.

Thus our Ætiology is constructed partly from calculation and reasoning, partly from phenomena. But we may observe that when we reason from phenomena to causes, we usually do so by various steps; often ascending from phenomena to mere laws of phenomena, before we can venture to connect the phenomenon confidently with its cause. Thus the law of subterranean heat, that it increases in descending below the surface, is now well established, although the doctrine which

ascribes this effect to a central heat is not universally assented to.

14.-In the Geography of Plants and Animals.— We may find in other subjects also, considerable contributions towards Etiology, though not as yet a complete system of science. The Etiology of vegetables and animals, indeed, has been studied with great zeal in modern times, as an essential preparative to geological theory; for how can we decide whether any assumed causes have produced the succession of species which we find in the earth's strata, except we know what effect of this kind given causes can produce? Accordingly, we find in Mr. Lyell's Treatise on Geology the most complete discussion of such questions as belong to these subjects:-for example, the question whether species. can be transmuted into other species by the long continued influence of external causes, as climate, food, domestication, combined with internal causes, as habits, appetencies, progressive tendencies. We may observe, too, that as we have brought before us the inquiry what change difference of climate can produce in any species, we have also the inverse problem, how far a different developement of the species, or a different collection of species, proves a difference of climate. In the same way, the geologist of the present day considers the question, whether, in virtue of causes now in action, species are from time to time extinguished; and in like manner, the geologists of an earlier period discussed the question, now long completely decided, whether fossil species in general are really extinct species.

15. In Languages.-Even with reference to the Etiology of language, although this branch of science has hardly been considered separately from the glossological investigations in which it is employed or assumed to be employed, it might perhaps be possible to point

out causes or conditions of change which, being general in their nature, must operate upon all languages alike. Changes made for the sake of euphony when words are modified and combined, occur in all dialects. Who can doubt that such changes of consonants as those by which the Greek roots become Gothic, and the Gothic, German, have for their cause some general principle in the pronunciation of each language? Again, we might attempt to decide other questions of no small interest. Have the terminations of verbs arisen from the accretion of pronouns; or, on the other hand, does the modification of a verb imply a simpler mental process than the insulation of a pronoun, as Adam Smith has maintained? Again, when the language of a nation is changed by the invasion and permanent mixture of an enemy of different speech, is it generally true that it is changed from a synthetic to an analytical structure? I will mention only one more of these wide and general glossological inquiries. Is it true, as Dr. Prichard has suggested *, that languages have become more permanent as we come down towards later times? May we justifiably suppose, with him, that in the very earliest times, nations, when they had separated from one stock, might lose all traces of this common origin out of their languages, though retaining strong evidences of it in their mythology, social forms, and arts, as appears to be the case with the ancient Egyptians and the Indians+?

Large questions of this nature cannot be treated profitably in any other way than by an assiduous study of the most varied forms of living and dead languages. But on the other hand, the study of languages should be prosecuted not only by a direct comparison of one with another, but also with a view to the formation of a science of causes and general principles, embracing such Researches, 11. 221. + lb., 11. 192.

discussions as I have pointed out. It is only when such a science has been formed, that we can hope to obtain any solid and certain results in the Palætiology of language; -to determine, with any degree of substantial proof, what is the real evidence which the wonderful faculty of speech, under its present developements and forms, bears to the events which have taken place in its own history, and in the history of man since his first origin.

16. Construction of Theories.-When we have thus obtained, with reference to any such subject as those we have here spoken of, these two portions of science, a Systematic Description of the Facts, and a rigorous Analysis of the Causes,-the Phenomenology and the Etiology of the subject, we are prepared for the third member which completes the science, the Theory of the actual facts. We can then take a view of the events which really have happened, discerning their connexion, interpreting their evidence, supplying from the context the parts which are unapparent. We can account for known facts by intelligible causes, we can infer latent facts from manifest effects, so as to obtain a distinct insight into the whole history of events up to the present time, and to see the last result of the whole in the present condition of things. The term Theory, when rigorously employed in such sciences as those which we here consider, bears nearly the sense which I have adopted: it implies a consistent and systematic view of the actual facts, combined with a true apprehension of their connexion and causes. Thus if we speak of "a Theory of Mount Etna," or "a Theory of the Paris Basin," we mean a connected and intelligible view of the events by which the rocks in these localities have come into their present condition. Undoubtedly the term Theory has often been used in a looser sense; and men have put forth" Theories of the Earth," which, instead of includ

ing the whole mass of actual geological facts and their causes, only assigned, in a vague manner, some causes by which some few phenomena might, it was conceived, be accounted for. Perhaps the portion of our Palætiological Sciences which we now wish to designate, would be more generally understood if we were to describe it as Theoretical or Philosophical History; as when we talk of "the Theoretical History of Architecture," or "the Philosophical History of Language." And in the same manner we might speak of the Theoretical History of the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms; meaning, a distinct account of the events which have produced the present distribution of species and families. But by whatever phrase we describe this portion of science, it is plain that such a Theory, such a Theoretical History, must result from the application of causes well understood to facts well ascertained. And if the term Theory be here employed, we must recollect that it is to be understood, not in its narrower sense as opposed to facts, but in its wider signification, as including all known facts and differing from them only in introducing among them principles of intelligible connexion. The Theories of which we now speak are true Theories, precisely because they are identical with the total system of the Facts.

17. No sound Palatiological Theory yet extant.—It is not to disparage the present state of science, to say that as yet no such theory exists on any subject.

66

Theories of the Earth" have been repeatedly published; but when we consider that even the facts of geology have been observed only on a small portion of the earth's surface, and even within those narrow bounds very imperfectly studied, we shall be able to judge how impossible it is that geologists should have yet obtained a well-established Theoretical History of the changes which have taken place in the crust of the terrestrial