example, to the dunes between Bayonne and La Tremblade. Here in some cases the dunes have attained a height of over two hundred feet, with, of course, a gentle inclination to the sea; they run in parallel and continuous lines and in accordance with the form of coast-line. By means which it is not here necessary to dwell upon, but which are within the powers of ordinary landowners, this shifting has been stayed, and what was once an arid desert is now a prosperous district, yielding a large supply of resin from the cluster pine, and employing a large population. It must, of course, be evident that if the sand shifts, the so-called litterol dune must be first fixed and afterwards maintained, and this can be done in various ways, but chiefly by sowing grasses with creeping roots. Inside this dune-and the same applies to fixed sands-the ground may be stocked with trees, when organic matter from the fall of leaf will soon be added to the sand, and fertility will take the place of sterility. The best trees for the litterol or outside dune, is the cluster pine-pinus pinaster; and on the land side the Scotch and Austrian pines may be planted. The cluster pine throws down a long tap-root and feeble lateral roots, which, however, develop vigorous vertical fibres. This peculiar development of root and fibre fits it for our sandy sea-shores.

Turn now to riparian boundaries. What has been advanced in favour of a sea frontage is applicable to that of a river, at least so far as they can apply. The boundary, prima facie, is the middle of the stream; that is, the proprietor of each bank is the proprietor of half the land covered by the stream, there being no property in the water. All having a right of access may use flowing water. The right they possess, however, is only a reasonable right, and they cannot deprive others of an

equal right by diminishing the supply or diverting the stream. It is not necessary here to dwell upon the laws which govern these matters, as no doubt they will be treated of in another chapter; but it may be briefly stated that a riparian owner has a natural right, incident to the property, to have the stream flow to him in its natural state. He may make any use of it he pleases, provided he does not thereby trespass on the rights of the proprietors above or below him.

In some rivers,

Now, a river frontage confers many privileges upon the owner, privileges which bear directly upon the value of the property. Among these are, as before stated, boating, bathing, fishing, carriage of produce, fowling, the power of irrigation, the power of driving turbines, rams, wheels, and for purposes of mills. too (but not many), there is the presence of what is locally called "warp," which is mud in a fine state. This may be, by artificial means, turned aside and allowed to remain until the warp has been deposited, when it is let off and fresh water turned in. By this means new agricultural areas have been created, which, when organic matter has accumulated, become rich and valuable.

Then there is the osier, the salix viminalis, which may be planted on the banks or moist spots, and which becomes under good management a most profitable crop. On such lands, too, if not too wet, the poplars, willows, and other trees which enjoy a cold bottom may be planted. The reed forms in some places a crop of considerable value, and the water-cress has been the means, under good cultivation, of conferring fortune upon many worthy men. Last, but not least, is the benefit conferred upon our hill farms by the presence of water-meadows. In some places

where the water-meadow system extends over a large area the farms which border upon the river front are so laid off as to secure to each a fair proportion. They, of course, suffer to some extent by the shape of the farm rendered necessary to secure this, but the value of the meadow is so great that this drawback is forgotten.

As a set-off, of course, there is in some cases the liability to floods, but this is by no means general, and it may often be met by concerted action. In fact this is one of those matters which may be met by wise legislation; the difficulty lies in the apportionment of the cost, for the dry uplands naturally object to pay a share upon the plea that they will not benefit, they do not recognise the fact that they contribute their quota of the

water.

It must be admitted that sea and river frontages confer advantages both to the owners of property and their tenants, and of course to the public, so far as they have access. On the coast of Ireland the collection of seaweed has for a long period been an industry which has conferred a great benefit upon the people. The tenants on the coast exercise the right of collecting that which is deposited upon their share of the frontage, which seems to have been allotted by custom. This is collected after storms and hung upon wooden frames to dry; in the summer it is burned and the ash sold to firms in Glasgow and elsewhere. Iodine, however, is now obtained from other sources, so that the industry, though still existent, is waning. This is only one instance of a frontage right to tenants. We might extend this to the development of watering places, to the building of piers, quays, breakwaters, esplanades, marinas, villas, hotels, and such like, but it would be travelling beyond the purposes of the

chapter. Sufficient has been said to show the value of ocean and river frontages, whether they are apparent or latent, and owners and would-be purchasers of land will do well to thoroughly and wisely investigate the privileges and rights which they possess, with a view to their development.

CHARLES E. CURTIS.

CHAPTER LXIV.

FORESTRY.

BY CHARLES E. CURTIS, F.S.I., F.S.S.,

Professor of Forest Economy, Field Engineering, and General Estate Management at the College of Agriculture, Downton, Salisbury; Member of the American Academy of Political and Social Science; Consulting Forester to the Right Honourable Lord O'Neill, Shanes Castle, Antrim, Ireland; Author of "Estate Management," 3rd edition ("Field" Office), "Practical Forestry" (Office of "Land Agents' Record"), "Principles of Forestry" (R. A. Society's Journal), "Valuation of

Property (Corporeal and Incorporeal)," etc.

THE term "forestry" carries with it a sense of sylvan beauty, accompanied with magnitude, but it is in this country a somewhat misapplied term. We have not those extensive tracts of woodland which we find in many parts of Europe, and to which the word "forest" is truly applied. True, we have the New Forest, the Forest of Dean, Savernake, and extensive tracts in Scotland, but even these are small compared with the vast areas in France, Germany, Austria, and Russia. Nevertheless, "forestry" conveys a meaning which it is impossible to misunderstand, and there seems no other single word capable of taking its place. In Great Britain and Ireland we have areas of woodland of various sizes belonging to various owners, all, more or less, under a different form of management, and it is impossible to grasp any true principle from the various forms employed. This is not to be wondered at when we consider that each individual owner has his own ideas