sterling. Lisbon is the greatest port in Europe next to Portugal London and Amsterdam.

Before the late revolution, the government of Portu- 54 Constitagal was an absolute hereditary monarchy. For the ad- tion and ministration of the civil government, there was a coun-governcil of state, and several secretaries; for military affairs, ment. a council of war; for the finances, a treasury court; and for the distribution of justice several high tribunals, with others subordinate to them, in the several districts into which the kingdom is divided. The cities have their particular magistracy. The proceedings of the courts are regulated by the Roman law, the royal edicts, the canon law, and the pope's mandates. Like the Spaniards, they transact most of their business in the mornings and evenings, and sleep at noon. The nobility are very numerous, and many of them are descended from natural sons of the royal family. They are divided into high and low. The high consists of the dukes, marquises, counts, viscounts, and barons, who are also grandees, but of different classes, being suffered to be covered in the king's presence, and having the title of Dons, with a pension from the royal treasury, to enable them the better to support their dignity: the king styles them Illustrious in his letters, and treats them as princes. A duke's sons are also grandees, and his daughters rank as marchionesses. The inferior nobility or gentry are termed Hidalgos, i. e. gentlemen: they cannot assume the title of Don without the king's license.

Portugal. bends, monks, and nuns, and the very inquisitors themselves.. If a Jew pretend to be a Christian and a Roman Catholic, while he is really a Jew, by going to mass, confession, &c. or if after being converted, or pretending to be converted and pardoned, he relapses into Judaism and is discovered, the inquisition lays hold of him. In the first case, if he renounce Judaism, he is only condemned to some corporal punishment or public shame, and then ordered to be instructed in the Christian religion. In the second, he is condemned to the flames without mercy. Besides Jews and heretics, who broach or maintain any doctrines contrary to the religion of the country, the inquisition punishes all sodomites, pretenders to sorcery and the black art, apostates, blasphemers, perjured persons, impostors, and hypocrites. The burning of those condemned by the inquisition, is called an auto da fe, or act of faith." There are several tribunals of the inquisition, one of which is at Goa in the East Indies; but there are none in Brasil. The number of convents in Portugal is said to be 900. The order of Jesuits hath been suppressed in this country, as they have been in others. Here is a patriarch, several archbishops and bishops: the patriarch is always a cardinal, and of the royal family. The archbishops rank with marquises, and the bishops with counts. The Portuguese have archbishops and bishops in the other quarters of the world as well as in Europe. The sums raised by the popes here, by virtue of their prerogatives, are thought to exceed the revenues of the crown, and the nuncios never fail of acquiring vast fortunes in a short time. Though there are two universities and several academies, yet while the papal power, and that of the ecclesiastics, continues at such a height, true learning is like to make but a small progress. The language of the Portuguese does not differ much from that of Spain: Latin is the groundwork of both; but the former is more remote from it, and harsher to the ear, than the latter. The Portuguese tongue is spoken on all the coast of Africa and Asia as far as China, but mixed with the languages of the several nations in those distant regions.

53

Manufac IMPOS.

With regard to manufactures, there are very few in Portugal, and those chiefly coarse silks, woollen cloths, and some linen; but their foreign trade is very considerable, especially with England, which takes a great deal of their wine, salt, foreign commodities, and fruits, in return for its woollen manufactures, with which the Portuguese furnish their colonies and subjects in Asia, Africa, and America. Their plantations in Brasil are very valuable, yielding gold, diamonds, indigo, copper, tobacco, sugar, ginger, cotton, hides, gums, drugs, dyeing woods, &c. From their plantations in Africa, they bring gold and ivory, and slaves to cultivate their sugar and tobacco plantations in Brasil. They have still several settlements in the East Indies, but far less considerable than formerly. The Azores or Western isles, Madeira, and the Cape de Verde islands, also belong to them; but a great part of the riches and merchandise brought from these distant countries becomes the property of foreigners, for the goods they furnish the Portuguese with to carry thither. The king's fifth of the gold brought from Brasil amounts commonly to about 300,000l. sterling; so that the whole annual produce of gold in Brasil may be estimated at near 2,000,000l. VOL. XVII. Part I.

55

The revenues of the crown, since the discovery of Revenues the Brasil mines, are very considerable; but the real? of the king, &c. amount can only be guessed at. Some have said that it amounts, clear of all salaries and pensions, to upwards of 3,000,000l. sterling; others make it a great deal less. Besides the royal demesnes, the hereditary estates of the house of Braganza, the monopoly of Brasil snuff, the coinage, the money arising from the sale of indulgences granted by the pope, the fifth of the gold brought from Brasil, the farm of the Brasil diamonds, the masterships of the orders of knighthood, and other sources, yield very large sums. The population of Portugal in 1815, was estimated at 3,680,000; the army at 25,000, besides 33,000 militia; the navy, 8 ships of the line and 16 frigates.

56 There are several orders of knighthood here, viz. the Orders of order of Christ, the badge of which is a red cross within knighta white one, and the number of the commanderies 454. bood. 2. The order of St James, the badge of which is a red sword in the shape of a cross. A great number of towns and commanderies belong to this order. 3. The order of Aviz, whose badge is a green cross in form of a lily, and the number of its commanderies 49. Though these three orders are religious, yet the knights are at liberty to marry. 4. The order of St John, which has also several commanderies.

The king's titles are, King of Portugal and the Algarves, on this side and the other side the sea of Africa; Lord of Guinea, and of the navigation, conquests, and commerce, in Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, India, &c. The king's eldest son is styled Prince of Brasil. In the year 1749, Pope Benedict XIV. dignified the king with the title of His most faithful majesty.

Portugal has recently become the scene of an extraordinary revolution. The Portuguese had long been G g dissatisfied

Portumna.

Possession

of an ancient castle. There is also a garrison for a troop Portumna of horse and two companies of foot. The town is seated on the river Shannon, where it falle into Lough Derg. POSE, in Heraldry, denotes a lion, horse, or other beast, standing still, with all his four feet on the ground. POSITIVE, a term of relation.opposed to negative. It is also used in opposition to relative or arbitrary : thus we say, Beauty is no positive thing, but depends on the different tastes of people.

POSITIVE Degree, in Grammar, is the adjective in its simple signification, without any comparison.

POSITIVE Electricity. In the Franklinian system all bodies supposed to contain more than their natural quantity of electric matter are said to be positively electrified; and those from whom some part of their elec tricity is supposed to be taken away are said to be electrified negatively. These two electricities being first produced, one from glass, the other from amber or rosin, the former was called vitreous, the other resinous, electricity.

Portugal dissatisfied with their government, and seem really to have had many serious grievances. After the removal of the court to Brasil, the mother-country had sunk to the condition of a colony, whose interests, on account of its distance from the seat of government, were often neglected or exposed to injury, from the arrogance and corruption of subordinate functionaries. The pride of the natives was hurt by the preference shewn to the English, who held many places of trust and power. Besides, the great changes the Portuguese had witnessed during the last ten years, and their free intercourse with foreigners during that period, had awakened political feelings which made them ardently wish for some alteration in their political institutions. The revolution in Spain gave increased force to these feelings, and rendered an explosion unavoidable. Accordingly, on the 24th August 1820, about five months after the completion of the Spanish revolution, a number of the leading men in Oporto, including some of the highest military officers, having previously satisfied themselves of the favourable disposition of the troops, assembled publicly, called out the military, and proclaimed the Spanish constitution, amidst the enthusiastic acclamations of the people. A provisional government was formed, and a deputation, supported by a strong body of troops, immediately set out towards Lisbon. The regency in the capital at first seemed disposed to resist; but finding that both the citizens and the army were decidedly favourable to the revolution, they yielded to the torrent, and in the name of John VI. issued a proclamation on the 2d September for assembling a cortes. This proceeding completed the revolution without one drop of blood being shed, and produced unbounded joy, both in the capital and the provinces. Some distrust, however, naturally attached to the agents of the former government; and after some negotiation these persons found it necessary to lay down their powers. The cortes has since met, and has been actively engaged in making many great and salutary reforms in the laws and interior police of the country. The constitution of this legislative assembly is pretty nearly the same with that of Spain; but in one very important point an alteration has been introduced. The deputies to the Portuguese cortes are chosen directly by the people; whereas in Spain there are three consecutive stages of election,-a mode of proceeding which offers great opportunities for corruption, and loosens the tie between the representative and the represented. The revolution in Spain was followed by a revolution in Brasil, and this led to the return of the Portuguese court to Europe. The leaders of the Portuguese revolution have conducted themselves hitherto with great firmness and moderation, correcting manifest evils, without innovating rashly; and avoiding all unnecessary rigour towards the agents of the former government.

PORTUGALLICA TERRA, earth of Portugal; the name of a fine astringent bole, dug in great plenty in the northern part of Portugal.

PORTULACA, PURSLANE; a genus of plants belonging to the dodecandria class. See BOTANY Index. PORTUMNA, a town of Ireland, in the county of Galway and province of Connaught, is 74 miles from Dublin. The castle of Portumna, the seat of the earl of Clanricarde, is at this place, and near it are the ruins

POSPOLITE, in the former military establishment of Poland, is the name given to a kind of militia. It was the most numerous and the most useless of the Polish armies, consisting of the gentry at large, who, in case of invasion, were assembled by a regular summons from the king, with consent of the diet. Every palatinate was divided into districts, over each of which proper officers were appointed; and every person possessing free and noble tenures was bound to military service, either singly or at the head of a certain number of his retainers, according to the extent and nature of his possessions. The troops thus assembled were obliged only to serve for a limited time, and were not under the neces sity of marching beyond the limits of their country. They submitted to no discipline but such as they liked themselves; and were very apt to mutiny if detained more than a fortnight in the place appointed for their meeting without marching. The mode of levying and maintaining this army was exactly similar to that prac tised under the feudal system. Although unfit for the purposes of repelling a foreign enemy, it was considered a powerful instrument in the hands of domestic faction: for the expedition with which it was raised under the feudal regulations facilitated the formation of those dangerous confederacies which suddenly started up on the contested election of a sovereign, or whenever the nobles were at variance with each other.

POSSE COMITATUS, in Law, signifies the power of the county, or the aid and assistance of all the knights, gentlemen, yeomen, labourers, servants, apprentices, &c. and all others within the county that are above the age of 15, except women, ecclesiastical persons, and such as are decrepit and infirm.

This posse comitatus is to be raised where a riot is committed, a possession kept upon a forcible entry, or any force of rescue used contrary to the king's writ, or in opposition to the execution of justice; and it is the duty of all sheriffs to assist justices of the peace in the suppression of riots, &c. and to raise the posse comitatus, or to charge any number of men for that purpose.

POSSESSION, in Law, is either actual, where a person actually enters into lands or tenements descended or conveyed to him; or where lands are descended to a person, and he has not yet entered into them. A

long

Possession, long possession is much favoured by the law as an argument of right, even though no deed can be shown, and it is more regarded than an ancient deed without possession.

If he that is out of possession of land brings an action, he must prove an undeniable title to it; and when a person would recover any thing of another, it is not sufficient to destroy the title of the person in possession, without he can prove that his own right is better than bis.

In order to make possession lawful upon an entry, the former possessor and his servants are to be removed from off the premises entered on: but a person by lease and release is in possession without making any entry upon the lands.

POSSESSION, in Scots Law. See LAW, Part III. No clxii. 11. &c.

Dæmoniacal POSSESSION. (See DAMON and DÆMONIACS). In the third volume of the Manchester Transactions, there is a paper on popular illusions, or medical demonology, by Dr Ferriar. He informs us in a note, that on the 13th of June 1788, George Lukins of Yatton in Somersetshire was exorcised in the Temple church at Bristol, and delivered from the possession of seven devils by the efforts of seven clergymen. An account of his deliverance was published in several of the public papers, authenticated by the Rev. Mr Easterbrook, vicar of the Temple church in Bristol.-Dr Ferriar gives us the following particulars, extracted from this account, which we shall here insert.

"Lukins was first attacked by a kind of epileptic fit, when he was going about acting Christmas plays, or mummeries: this he ascribed to a blow given by an invisible hand. He was afterwards seized by fits; during which he declared, with a roaring voice, that he was the devil, and sung different songs in a variety of keys. The fits always began and ended with a strong agitation of the right hand. He frequently uttered dreadful execrations during the fits. The whole duration of his disorder was 18 years.

"At length, viz. in June 1788, he declared that he was possessed by seven devils, and could only be freed by the prayers (in faith) of seven clergymen. Accordingly the requisite force was summoned, and the patient sung, swore, laughed, and barked, and treated the company with a ludicrous parody on the Te Deum. These astonishing symptoms resisted both hymns and prayers, till a small faint voice admonished the ministers to adjure. The spirits, after some murmuring, yielded to the adjuration, and the happy patient returned thanks for his wonderful cure. It is remarkable, that during this solenin mockery, the fiend swore by his infernal den,' that he would not quit his patient; an oath, I believe, nowhere to be found but in the Pilgrim's Progress, from which Lukins probably got it.

"Very soon after the first relation of this story was published, a person, well acquainted with Lukins, took the trouble of undeceiving the public with regard to his pretended disorder, in a plain sensible narrative of his conduct. He asserts that Lukins's first seizure was nothing else than a fit of drunkenness; that he always foretold his fits, and remained sensible during their continuance; that he frequently saw Lukins in his fits, in every one of which, except in singing, he performed not more than most active young people can

Post

easily do ;' that he was detected in an imposture with Possession respect to the clenching of his hands; that after money had been collected for him, he got very suddenly well; that he never had any fits while he was at St George's Hospital in London; nor when visitors were excluded from his lodgings, by desire of the author of the Narrative; and that he was particularly careful never to hurt himself by his exertions during the paroxysm.

"Is it for the credit of this philosophical age, that so bungling an imposture should deceive seven clergymen, into a public act of exorcism? This would not have passed even on the authors of the Malleus Malificarum ; for they required signs of supernatural agency, such as the suspension of the possessed in the air, without any visible support, or the use of different languages, unknown to the demoniac in his natural state."

POSSESSIVE, in Grammar, a term applied to pronouns, which denote the enjoyment or possession of any thing either in particular or in common: as meus, "mine ;" and tuus, "thine."

POSSESSORY ACTION, in Scots Law. See Law No clxxxiii. 18.

POSSIBILITY, in Law, is defined to be any thing that is altogether uncertain, or what may or may not be.

POSSIBILITY, also denotes a non-repugnance to existing, in any thing that does not any way exist.

POSSIBLE, is sometimes opposed to real existence, and is understood of a thing, which, though it actually does not exist, yet may exist; as a new star.

POSSIDONIA, in Ancient Geography. See PoE

STUM.

POST, a word derived from the Latin positus, "aet or placed." It is used in several different meanings, but all of them referring either immediately or remotely to this primitive sense of position. Thus the word Post signifies, 1. A stake or piece of timber set upright; 2. A station, particularly a military station; 3. An of fice or employment; 4. An operation in book-keeping; 5. A conveyance for letters or dispatches; 6. A particular mode of travelling.

POST, a stake or piece of timber set upright. Posts are used both in building and in fencing ground. In brick-buildings much of the strength of the fabric depends on the nature of the posts; as it is through them, that the several parts are sustained and held together. The corner posts are called the principal posts; those formed into bressummers between principal posts for strengthening the carcase of the house are called the prick-posts. Posts which are to be set in the ground ought to be well seasoned and coated to preserve them from rotting; burning the downward end has been recommended as an excellent preservative, but a coating of pitch or tar, particularly the late invented coal-tar, can be most safely relied upon. For the various uses to which posts may be applied, and the form and species of them fittest to be employed in each case, see the articles ARCHI TECTURE, JOINING, GARDENING, HOUSE, FENCE, &c. In architecture and sculpture, POSTS are a term used to denote certain ornaments formed after the manner of rolls or wreathings.

POST, a station, particularly a military station.Any place where persons are set or placed upon particular occasions may be termed a post: but the word in this view is now chiefly restricted to military operations, and

G g 2

whom transactions are carried on, and frequently for Port every separate article about which the business is concerned. The particular mode according to which such transferences are made, may vary according to the nature of the trade carried on; the object is the same in all, to place every article so as that its operations on the general state of the business may be certainly known and distinctly traced. For a full account of the way in which this is done, see Book-Keeping.

POST, a conveyance for letters or dispatches.

and means any place or situation where soldiers are stationed. Thus the detachments established in front of the army are termed the out-posts, the stations on the wings of the army are said to be the posts of honour, as being the most conspicuous and most exposed. But in the operations of a campaign, a post properly signifies any spot of ground capable of lodging soldiers, or any situation, whether fortified or not, where a body of men may make a stand and engage the enemy to advantage. The great advantages of good posts, in carrying on war, as well as the mode of securing them, are only learned by experience. Barbarons nations disdain the choice of posts, or at least are contented with such as immediately fall in their way; they trust solely or chiefly to strength and courage and hence the fate of a kingdom may be decided by the event of a battle. But enlightened and experienced officers make the choice of posts a principal object of attention. The use of them is chiefly felt in a defensive war against an invading enemy; as by carrying on a war of posts in a country where this can be done to advantage, the most formidable army may be so harassed and reduced, that all its enterprises may be rendered abortive. In the choice of a post, the general rules to be attended to are, that it be convenient for sending out parties to reconnoitre, surprise, or intercept the enemy; that if possible it have some natural defence, as a wood, a river, or a morass in front or flank, or at least that it be difficult of access, and susceptible of speedy fortification; that it be so situated as to preserve a communication with the main army, and have covered places in the rear to favour a retreat; that it command a view of all the approaches to it, so that the enemy cannot advance unperceived and rest concealed, while the detachment stationed in the post are forced to remain under arms; that it be not commanded by any neighbouring heights; and that it be proportioned in extent to the number of men who are to occupy and defend it. It is not to be expected that all these advantages will often be found united; but those posts - ought to be selected which offer the greatest number of them. See WAR.

POST, an office or employment. This use of the word is probably derived immediately from the idea of a military station; a post being used to express such offices or employments as are supposed either to expose the holder to attack and opposition, or to require abilities and exertion to fill them. Hence the term is used only for public offices and employments under the government; and were strict propriety of speech always attended to, posts would denote those stations only in which duty must be performed. In common language, however, every public office or appointment, even though nominal and sinecure, goes under the name of a post.

POST, an operation in book-keeping. Posting in bookkeeping means simply the transferring an article to the place in which it should be put, and arranging each under its proper head. It is upon this that the whole theory of book-keeping is founded. The Waste-book, which is the ground work of all subsequent operations, records every transaction exactly in the order in which it occurs. From this the several articles are posted, or transferred into the Journal, which in fact is but a kind of supplementary book to the Waste-book. From the Journal they are posted anew into the Ledger; in which a separate place is appropriated for each person with

In the early periods of society, communication between the different parts of a country is rare and diffi cult, individuals at a distance having little inclination or opportunity for mutual intercourse: when such communication is at any time found necessary, a special messenger must be employed. As order and civilization advance, occasions of correspondence multiply. In parti cular, the sovereign finds it requisite frequently to transmit orders and laws to every part of the kingdom; and for doing so he makes use of couriers or messengers, to whom he commits the charge of forwarding his dispatches. But without stations in the way, where these couriers can be certain of finding refreshment for themselves and supplies of what may be necessary for carrying them forward, the journey, however urgent and important, must always be retarded, and in many cases altogether stopped. Experience, therefore, soon pointed out the necessity of ensuring such accommodations, by erecting upon all the great roads houses or stations at convenient intervals, where the messengers might stop, as occasion required, and where too, for the greater convenience, relays of fresh horses should always be in readiness, to enable them to pursue their journey with uninterrupted dispatch. These houses or stations were with great propriety termed posts, and the messenger who made use of them a post. Though at first, it is probable, the institution was intended solely for the sovereign, and the necessities of the state; yet by degrees individuals, seeing the benefit resulting from it, made use of the opportunity to carry on their own correspondence; for which they were willing to pay an allowance to the sovereign. Thus a post-office, of some kind or other, gradually came to be established in every civilized country. Without tak ing notice of the different means of carrying on corres pondence said to have been attempted by pigeons, dogs, and other animals, we can at least trace with certainty the invention of something like regular posts as far back as the ancient Persians. Xenophon assures us, that they were invented by Cyrus on his Scythian expedition, about 500 years before Christ; that the houses at the several stations were sumptuously built, and large enough to contain a number of men and horses; and that every courier on his arrival was obliged to communicate his dispatches to the postmaster, by whom they were immediately forwarded. From the shore of the Egean sea to Susa the capital, there were, according Herodotus, 111 stages for posts, each a day's journey distant from the preceding.

In what manner posts were established and conducted among the Greeks does not clearly appear; but from the extended commerce carried on, and the frequent communications enjoyed among the different states, there can be no doubt that a regular conveyance, in some form or other, was established. Though posts were well known among the Romans,

yet