with the assistance of the duke of Normandy, forced his brother to content himself with Burgundy, which this branch of the royal family possessed 300 years. At this period the tyranny of feudalism was at its height. Overwhelmed with services, toils, and subsidies of all sorts, imposed by the military or the ecelesiastics, the people fought only to rivet their chains more firmly. Those who lived in the country were called villeins those of the cities and towns, bourgeois. Neither of them could labour but for the advantage of their lords, who often quartered their military retainers upon them. Among themselves the lords were equally ferocious; their declarations of war extended to relations and allies, and the quarrel of a single family was sufficient to involve a whole community in the fiercest war for years together. Thus France became one vast field of blood, and perpetual camage at length wearied even ferocity itself.

A. D. 1060.-The long reign of Philip I., son of Henry I., is an epoch of remarkable events. William, duke of Normandy, crossed the channel, and effected the conquest of England in 1066, where he established his own rigorous modification of the feudal regime, and had also the firmness to refuse homage to the pope. A jest of the king of France on the obesity of William kindled a war, from which may be dated a long continued enmity between France and England.

A. D. 1108.-Philip was succeeded by his son, Louis the Gross. The first years of his reign were disturbed by insurrections of his lords in different parts of the kingdom, and these insurrections were the more troublesome, as they were secretly fomented by the English king, that by weakening the power of France his duchy of Normandy might be the more secure. These wars between the two countries were often interrupted by treaties, but as often re-lighted by national ambition and antipathy. Louis the Young, unfortunate in the crusades, at his return repudiated his wife, in whose right he inherited Guienne and Poictou. He died in 1180. and was succeeded by his son, Philip II., surnamed the August. Philip II. defeated John, king of England, and wrested from him Normandy, Maine, and Anjou. He then went on the crusade with Richard Coeur-deLion, to rescue Jerusalem from the Saracens. The two kings succeeded only in taking Acre, and Philip, on his return, treacherously invaded Normandy during Richard's absence.

A. D. 1223.-Philip Augustus was succeeded by his son, Louis VIII., surnamed the Lion. His short reign was not marked by any great events, but he distinguished it by enfranchising a great number of serfs or villeins. He signalized his courage against the English, and died of a contagious distemper, at the age of thirty-nine years.

A. D. 1226.-Louis IX., surnamed for his piety, Saint Louis, having de feated the king of England and many of the grand vassals of France, at Tailleburg, conducted an army to Palestine, took Damietta in Egypt, and distinguished himself at Massous, where he was taken prisoner. He was a friend to the indigent, and a zealous advocate for the Christian religion. He died before Tunis, where he had gone upon a second crusade against the infidels. Philip III., surnamed the Bold, his son, was proclaimed king by the army; he was liberal, benevolent, and just, but displayed no striking abilities. He was succeeded by his son, Philip the Fair.

A. D. 1285.-Philip IV., surnamed le Bel, or the Fair, celebrated for his disputes with Edward I. of England, and Pope Boniface VIII., abolished the order of the Templars, reduced the Flemings, and made the seat of the parliament permanent in Paris. He was of a lively disposition, but cruel and unfeeling, and employed ministers who possessed his defects without his good qualities. In his reign, the states-general, or representatives of the three estates of the kingdom, the nobility, clergy, and commonalty, were first assembled. Philip JV. was succeeded by his son, Louis X., during whose reign, which was short, the people were burdened

with imposts. The two brothers of Louis, Philip the Long and Charles IV., followed successively. Philip signalized himself by a number of wise regulations in the courts of justice. Charles followed his brother's steps in this particular, but the state was loaded with debts and badly governed.

SECOND BRANCH.-House of Valois.

A. D. 1328.-Queen Jane, wife of Charles IV., being delivered of a posthumous daughter, the house of Valois mounted the throne, the states of France having decreed females to be incapable of inheriting the crown of France. This is called the Salic law, from its having been the practice of a tribe of Franks, called Salians, to exclude females from all inheritance to landed property. Philip IV., soon after his succession, defeated the Flemings, but was defeated by the English in a sea-fight near Sluys, also at Cressy and Calais. In this reign Dauphiny was annexed to the crown of France.

A. D. 1350.—John, a brave prince, but without genius or political discernment, succeeded Philip. He continued to war against England, but was defeated and taken prisoner at the battle of Poitiers. The kingdom became the theatre of factions and carnage, and was drained of its valuables to ransom the king. He had stipulated for the cession of one third of the kingdom, and 3,000,000 of gold crowns. Not being able to raise this enormoùs sum, John voluntarily returned to London, and died soon after, A. D. 1364. His son, Charles, surnamed the Wise, succeeded him. Charles V., seconded by De Guesclin, constable of France, avenged the honour of the nation, and re-established order in the state. Everything wore a new face under this king, who was wise, laborious, and economical; a friend to the arts, to letters, and to virtue.

A. D. 1380.-Charles VI. succeeded to the crown, and France, under his government, fell into great disorder. This prince having lost his reason, and recovering it at intervals, nothing decisive could be effected. The English king, Henry V., entered France, and gained the battle of Agincourt. Henry, by treaty, became heir to the crown, but died a few days before Charles VI. Henry VI. of England was crowned king of France at a very early age. His uncle, John, duke of Bedford, acted as regent, and during his life the power of the English increased in France. About this time Joan of Arc, an enthusiast in the cause of her country, reanimated the valour and patriotism of the French nation. She fought several battles with success, but was at length taken at Compiégne, and burnt as a witch, by order of the English. [See "ENGLAND," Henry VI.] During this time, Charles VII. reigned only over a part of France. But the duke of Bedford was no sooner dead, than the duke of Burgundy became reconciled with Charles. Normandy, Guienne, and the other provinces, which nad been held by the power of the duke of Bedford, acknowledged Charles, and the English were compelled to evacuate France. Charles VII. was succeeded by Louis XI., his rebellious son. He established the posts. He was a bad son, and as bad a father; a severe prince, but a deep politician. Some important changes in the political condition and the manners of the nation were produced in this reign. The royal power was extended and consolidated, the knights and nobles assisting in this, because it gave scope for their exploits. The gendarmerie, or body of permanent cavalry, was formed, and a corps of foot archers. Charles VIII., who succeeded him, married Anne of Brittany, thereby putting an end to the last of the great feudal fiefs of France. He restored to Ferdinand V. Cardagne and Roussillon. He was an amiable prince, and his death was con

sidered as a public loss.

The House of Valois- Orleans.

A. D. 1495 Charles VIII. dying without children, Louis, duke of Or leans, descended from Charles V., obtained the crow, of which he ap peared worthy by his good qualities and his virtues. He commenced his reign by forgiving his enemies, and befriending his people. He conquered Milan, which he afterwards lost. He made himself master of the kingdom of Naples, conjointly with the king of Arragon. He made war also against Pope Julius II. Gaston, duke of Nemours, and the chevalier Bayard, greatly distinguished themselves; but the French were obliged to quit Italy. Louis XII. acquired glory more durable, by gaining the love of his people, and by his extraordinary affability, than by his wars

House of Valois-Angouleme.

A. D. 1515.-A prince of the house of Valois-Angoulême ascended the throne after the death of Louis XII., who left an only daughter, married to Francis, count of Angoulême, heir to the crown. Francis defeated the Swiss at Marignan, reunited Brittany to the crown, and conquered Lux embourg. He was the protector and the promoter of the fine arts, and a great encourager of the learned. He died with the reputation of being the most polite prince in Europe.

A. D. 1547.-Henry II. succeeded Francis. The face of affairs changed at the commencement of the reign of this prince. He joined the league of the protestant princes against the emperor, and made himself master of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. The emperor, Charles V., besieged Metz; the duke of Guise obliged him to raise the siege, and defeated him at Renti. Henry afterwards entered into a league against the house of Austria in Spain, and Philip II. avenged the honour of the Spaniards at St. Quintin. The duke of Guise took Calais from the English, and the peace of Cateau Cambresis terminated the war. Francis II., his son, succeeded to the throne-a prince without any remarkable vices or virtues. He was married to Mary, queen of Scots, and died at the age of

seventeen.

A. D. 1560.-Francis II. was succeeded by Charles IX. The religious wars, the seeds of which had been previously sown, broke out with fury in this reign. The massacre of Vassi was the signal, and France presented nothing but one continued scene of sanguinary factions for years. The massacre of St. Bartholomew's day covered the land with the bleeding bodies of the protestants. On the eve of St. Bartholomew, orders had been sent to the governors of provinces to fall upon the protestants in every department throughout France; and though an edict was published before the end of the week, assuring them of the king's protection, and that he by no means designed to exterminate them because of their religion, yet private orders were sent of a nature directly contrary; in consequence of which the massacre at Paris was repeated in many of the principal towns and in the space of two months fifty thousand protestants were cruelly butchered. From the time of this most atrocious order, given by Charles himself, he was taken ill, and languished with bodily pains, until relieved by death, A. D. 1572. Charles, dying without issue, was succeeded by his brother, Henry III., who, in 1575, concluded the celebrated "edict of pacification" with the protestants; the substance of which was, that liberty of conscience, and the public exercise of religion, were granted to the reformed, without any other restriction than that they should not preach within two leagues of Paris, or any other place where the court was. This edict caused the Guises to form an association called the "catholic league." This struck at the very root of the king's authority; for as the protestants had already their chiefs, so the catho Lics were for the future to depend entirely upon the chief of the league,

and execute whatever he commanded. Hence arose another persecution of the protestants, and another reconciliation. In the end, however, the king perished by assassination at the hands of a monk, in the year 1588. Before the king's death he nominated Henry of Bourbon, king of Navarre, as his successor on the throne of France.

THIRD BRANCH.-House of Bourbon.

A. D. 1589.-Henry IV. took the title of king of France and Navarre : and his first care was to put an end to the religious disputes which had so long distracted the kingdom. For this purpose he subsequently promulgated the celebrated edict of Nantes, which re-established all the favours that had ever been granted to the reformed by other princes. He was acknowledged by the lords of the court, but opposed by the catholic league, which set up the old cardinal of Bourbon as king, under the title of Charles X. Henry IV., with a small army and little money, was obliged to conquer his kingdom. He raised the siege of Paris, and defeated the duke of Mayenne, at Arques and at Ivri. After this success he presented himself before Paris, and before Rouen, which places he besieged in form, but was compelled to abandon them by the duke of Parma. The duke of Mayenne assembled the states-general for the election of a king of France; but the victory gained by Henry at Dreux, and his abjuration of the protestant religion, overthrew all their projects, and Paris and the greater part of the cities in the kingdom, submitted to his government. The duke of Mayenne retired into Burgundy; but the leaguers, supported by Spain, were still in opposition in Brittany. Henry declared war against Spain, and defeated the Spanish army at FontaineFrançoise. With the assistance of his sagacious friend and minister, Sully, he established order in the finances, and in every department of the state; and while intent on reducing the dangerous power of the house of Austria, and rendering still greater service to the people, he was stabbed by a fanatical priest named Řavilliac Thus fell the greatest prince ever known in France-the best and bravest of its kings.

A. D. 1610.-Louis XIII., surnamed the Just, succeeded Henry IV Being a minor, Mary de Medicis was declared regent of the kingdom, and dispensed with profusion the riches which Henry had amassed to render France powerful. The queen's favourite, a Florentine, named Concini, governed the state. The lords, dissatisfied with the pride and despotism of this stranger, took to arms; and the death of the favourite calmed the intestine division. But no sooner was Concini in his grave, than another favourite, De Luynes appeared, possessing more power, if possible, than the former. Louis banished his mother to Blois. The celebrated Riche lieu, then bishop of Lucon, effected a reconciliation between them, and received, as a reward, a cardinal's hat. The protestants, much aggrieved by the catholics, took to arms. The king marched against them, and was victorious in every quarter, except at Montaubon, from whence he was obliged to retire with great loss. The credit and ambition of Richelieu increased daily, until he was declared minister of the state. The war was renewed with the protestants, and Rochelle, the bulwark of the Calvinists, was, after a severe conflict, reduced by the king. The queenmother, and Gaston d'Orleans, became jealous of the authority of Richelieu, and, disgusted with his pride, left the kingdom; and the duke de Montmorenci was beheaded at Toulouse. Richelieu died in the fiftyeighth year of his age, and his death was soon followed by that of the king, who was succeeded by his son.

A. D. 1913.-Louis XIV. being only six years old when his father died, the queen, Anne of Austria, was declared regent of the kingdom, and appointed Cardinal Mazarine as minister. Condé defeated the emperor at Rocroy, at Fribourg, at Nordlingen, and at Lens and these successes

seconded by those of Turenne, determined the emperor to conclude peace. The Spaniards still continued the war. The young king took the field in person at the head of his armies, and Stenay and Montmedi were the fruits of his first efforts for military fame. Peace was soon after con. cluded between Don Louis de Haro, on the part of the Spaniards, and Cardinal Mazarine, on that of the French. The cardinal died soon after, eaving the finances in the most deranged state, and the navy nearly ruined. Louis XIV. now took the reins of government into his own hands. He thirsted for glory, and had the discernment to choose great men as his ministers. Colbert and Louvois filled the first offices of the state. The finances, the commerce, the marine, the civil and military government, the sciences and the arts, experienced a happy change. The death of Philip IV. of Spain occasioned the renewal of war. Louis headed his troops, showing a great example of activity and courage; and his conquests were the means of re-establishing peace. The success of his arms alarmed the neighbouring powers, who entered into a defensive league against France. Louis again took the field, and conquered the greater part of Holland, which he was obliged to evacuate through the firmness and intrepidity of the stadtholder, afterwards William III., king of Great Britain. The theatre of the war was soon after changed, and Franche Compté was reconquered. In the zenith of his conquests, Louis dictated the conditions of the peace of Nimeguen; but this peace was soon after infracted. The Spaniards lost Luxembourg; Algiers, Tripoli, and Geneva were bombarded, and obtained peace by making reparation in proportion to the offences they had given. The princes of Europe formed the league of Augsburg against Louis, of which William, prince of Orange, was the soul. Louis impoliticly revoked the edict of Nantes, thereby depriving himself of the services of many thousands of his best and most useful subjects, the protestants, whom he threw into the arms of his enemies. Having so done, he marched against the allied Dowers. He took, in person, Mons and Namur; and under Luxembourg, Catinat, and Vendome, the French signalized themselves at Fleurus, at Steinkirk, at Neuvinde, at Barcelona, and elsewhere. James II., of Eng. land, having abdicted his throne, flew to France as an asylum; and Louis endeavoured, but in vain, to re-establish him. Peace was made at Ryswick, and Europe once more enjoyed repose.

Peace was of short duration; the death of Charles II. of Spain rekindled the flames of war. Philip, duke of Berri, by the will of the late king, was named heir to the Spanish throne, which he ascended by the name of Philip V. The emperor claimed the crown of Spain for his son. War was declared, and the fortune of arms appeared to have abandoned Louis, who, as well as Philip, sued for peace; but the terms offered by the allies were so hard, as to excite the indignation of the Bourbons. The war was continued, and at length terminated in favour of France, who saw Philip in peaceable possession of the crown of Spain, secured by the peace of Utrecht in 1713. Two years after, Louis died, having reigned seventy-two years. The reign of Louis XIV. has been celebrated as the era which produced everything great and noble in France. He has been held up to the world as the munificent patron of the arts, and a prince whose conceptions and plans were always grand and dignified. The true character of kings can only be justly determined by posterity, and the reputation of this celebrated monarch has not been strengthened by time. After every proper tribute of applause is rendered him, it may be asserted, that, in general, he rather displayed a preposterous vanity than true greatness of character, which has been productive of such baneful effects, that the decline of the French monarchy may said to have mainly originated from his conduct. It must be admitted that in the earlier years of his reign, Louis was a liberal patron of 'etters, and many of the most