parts, towering above the others in lofty and regular polygonal columns, forming, by their assemblage, prisms, pyramids, and domes. The smaller minerals are very numerous: the topaz occurs frequently, and there are found also chrysolites, amethysts, chalcedonies, cornelians, agates, jasper, garnets, and tourmalins; and among the coar ser stones are serpentine, asbest, amianthus, barytes, and fluates of lime. The porcelain clay in the neighbourhood of Meissen is well known; here are also fullers-earth, terra-sigillata, and other minerals with an argillaceous base: petrifactions are very common. Of the precious metals in the Saxon mountains, the quantity of gold is so small that it has never been made the object of particular research; but there are a few silver mines. The lofty primitive mountains abound in iron; the secondary in copper and lead. Next to these are arsenic, cobalt, antimony, manganese, zinc, sulphur, alum, vitriol, and borax. The salt mines and springs of Saxony are included in the districts ceded in 1815 to Prussia. Manufactures and Trade.-These are of greater extent than in most inland countries; and of the continent of Europe, Saxony may be considered that part which, after the Netherlands and the north of France, approaches most nearly to England. The weaving of linen is an employment of old date; it is carried on in almost every village of the kingdom, but more particularly in Upper Lusatia, at Zittau, Bautzen, and Herrnhut. Woollens likewise are manufactured in a number of towns. Cotton spinning and weaving, after being conducted on a small scale, so early as the 17th century, acquired a rapid extension towards the close of the 18th, and forms at present a great object of manufacturing industry at Chemnitz, Plauen, and other parts. The machinery used in Saxony, though inferior to the English, has of late years been much improved; labour also is cheap, but the conveyance of raw material, such as cotton, from a foreign country, is tedious and expensive. There are silk manufactures on a small scale at Leipsic, and in several smaller towns. Tanneries are more general, and the paper manufactories are not inconsiderable. Every town of consequence has breweries and distilleries. The cultivation of silk was attempted towards the middle of the 18th century, but relinquished, the climate being too cold for the silk worm. The manufactures connected with the mines are of considerable extent, particularly at Freyberg, which being situated in the hilly district, may be termed the central and principal point for this kind of industry, as well for foundries of cannon and balls, as for separating the more valuable metals from their ores by amalgamation. At Dresden also there are foundries of cannon and balls, the navigation by the Elbe af fording facilities for the transport of these very heavy commodities. Cobalt is made into smalts, and blue dye in several towns in the mining district, while other places are noted for the manufacture of verdigrease and green dye. For commercial intercourse the position of Saxony is not favourable. The neigh bouring countries are poor, and their sovereigns have till of late cramped the trans port of the goods, by tolls and other dues paid at the barrier custom-houses. The deficiency of water conveyance necessitates the carriage of goods on waggons, and the roads are often indifferent. The exports from Saxony consist, in regard to raw pro duce, in wool and minerals; as to manafactures, in linen, yarn, woollens, and lace. The imports are silk, flax, cotton, coffee, stgar, wine, aud, in certain seasons, corn. The most trading place is Leipsic, which is re markable both for its half yearly fairs, and for being the centre of the book trade of Germany. Religion and Education.-Saxony, the birthplace of the reformation, reckons among its inhabitants a great majority of Lutherans, but the reigning family have been Catholics since 1697, when Augustes abjured the reformed creed, to obtain the crown of Poland. That change was productive of extended toleration to the Catholics in Saxony, who till then had not been allowed to perform their worship openly. The institutions for education in this country are numerous and well conducted, it being a common remark, that in no country except Scotland and the Pays de Vaud, are the lower classes so generally taught to read and write. Certain it is, that in no country of equal extent is the number of printing and book establish ments so great. Of the universities, Haile now belongs to Prussia, but Leipsic remains to Saxony, and maintains all its for mer reputation. The Saxons having cultivated literature and the elegant arts more generally than the majority of their German countrymen, have been by some writers compared to the French-a comparison not devoid of foun dation, as far as regards attention to the fair sex, or a certain versatility of opinion and feeling. But the German character certainly predominates among this people, as is evinced, among other things, by the minuteness with which they too often treat an insignificant subject; also in the more gratifying points of the general modesty et the women, and a no less general frankness in the male sex. Revenue and Military Force. The revenue of Saxony passes in the first instance through the hauds of the provincial states, who render government an account only of the surplus, after defraying all local expences: it thus probably exceeds L.1,000,000 sterling, the sum at which it is computed, including the rent of the royal domains and the crown dues, which are paid into the treasury direct. Saxony has long been burdened with a national debt. In the latter part of the 18th century, the elector and the states exerted themselves to diminish it, and were proceeding successfully, when they unfortunately became involved in the war of the French revolution. The territorial acquisitions of 1807, accounted so advantageous at the time, proved the source of great additional burdens. On making the cessions to Prussia in 1815, a proportional amount of debt was made over to that crown; but the public debt of Saxony amounts still to L.3,700,000. The army, which in this country was never large in proportion to its population, is at present on a peace establishment of 12,000 men, the best disciplined part of whom are the cavalry and artillery. Constitution and Government.-After being, during many centuries, an electorate, Saxony was formed in 1806 into a kingdom, in consequence of the occupancy of Prussia by Bonaparte, and of the aggrandisement of those states which it suited him to consider his allies. But this change of title was not accompanied by an extension of prerogative, the sovereign continuing to share the legislative functions with the states, and imposing no tax without their concurrence. The states are divided into two houses, viz. the prelates and nobles in one, and in the other the country gentry and deputies of the towns. The higher offices of administration are entrusted to a cabinet council, a board of finance, a military board, a high court of appeal for judicial questions, and an upper consistory for ecclesiastical. Each circle has a court of justice, and offices for the transaction of provincial business. The inhabitants of Saxony are better prepared than in most parts of Germany for a representative assembly on the plan of uninfluenced election. The peasantry, very different from their degraded brethren in Bohemia or Prussian Poland, are here in the enjoyment of complete personal free dom. The king of Saxony, as a member of the Germanic confederation, has the fourth rank (see Germany) in the smaller, and four votes at the larger assembly. The court, formerly kept with a certain degree of magnificence, has adopted a style of great simplicity, since the distressing cessions of territory in 1815. History. Referring to the preceding ar- · ticle for the origin of the Saxons, it remains to state that the first margrave of Meissen who bore the title of elector, began his reign in 1422; he was surnamed Frederick the Warlike, and was the founder of the university of Leipsic. The next memorable event in the history of Saxony was the reformation, in the beginning of the 16th century. Luther had the good fortune to be the subject of a prince who, without openly espousing his cause, protected him and his doctrines against persecution. His successor John Frederick, styled, with the ordinary courtesy of Germans, the 'magnanimous,' having the misfortune to lose a decisive battle against an army of the emperor Charles V., was stripped of his states and dignity, which the emperor conferred on Maurice, margrave of Meissen, the cousin of the elector, and the ancestor of the present house of Saxony. Maurice putting himself at the head of the Protestant interest, proved a full match for the artful Charles, who in 1552 had almost fallen into his hands, and was compelled to sign the convention of Passau, since cousidered the bulwark of the religious freedom of Germany. The Saxons took an active part in the war of religion, or, as it is called in Germany, the thirty years war, terminated at last by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. But in 1697 the temptation of the crown of Poland, vacant by the death of Sobieski, induced the reigning elector Augustus I. to profess himself a Catholic, a change which, in these days of religious fervour, was productive of great surprise. His policy did not, however, prosper. The Swedes under Charles XII. not only conquered Poland, but invaded Saxony, bringing great distress in the country until 1708, when relief was obtained by the march of Charles into Russia, and its disastrous issue; after which the crown of Poland was resumed by Augustus. Saxony remained neutral in the war of 1740 between Prussia and Austria. In that of 1756 she was tempted to take a part by the flattering promises of Austria; but instead of an accession of territory, the Saxon court saw its dominions ravaged, and many of its subjects ruined in this dreadful contest. The peace of 1763 left the country loaded with an enormous debt, and impressed both the government and the people with the necessity of a total alteration of politics, renouncing objects of ambition, reducing the military establishment, SAXONY, a large province of the Prussian states, situated to the west of Brandenburg, and north of the kingdom of Saxony. It comprises almost the whole of the cessions made by the latter power at the congress of Vienna, and with these have been incorporated by the Prussian government, the principalities lying to the north of the duchy of Anhalt, and to the west of the rivers Elbe and Havel; so that the whole now forms an area of 9830 square miles, with rather more than 1,000,000 of inhabitants. It lies between Long. 9. 50. and 13. 50. E. Lat. 50. 52. and 53. 3. N. and is divided into the governments of Magdeburg, Merseburg, and Erfurt. It forms a distinct military division; and the chief town is Magdeburg. cultivating a good understanding with extend her dominion beyond the great Prussia, and endeavouring to lessen the mountains which bound Bohemia on the pressure of the public debt. In the war north, all of which bear the additional of 1793 the contingent furnished by Saxony title of Wittgenstein, and are well known against France was not large, and no decid- in the history of the late war, by the aced part was taken in the war, until 1806, tive share taken in it by one of the family when the elector sent all his troops to the in the service of Russia. The principal of field, in support of the king of Prussia. these are Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg, The overthrow of that power enabled Bo- Sayn-Wittgenstein-Hohenstein, and Saynnaparte to attach the Saxons to his cause Wittgenstein-Sayn. See Wittgenstein. by the most substantial advantages. The title of elector was changed to that of king. Prussian Poland was added to the Saxon dominions, and in 1809 was nearly doubled by cessions obtained from Austria. But these acquisitions, disproportioned to the inherent strength of Saxony, led, as formerly, to disastrous results. The Russians re-occupied Poland in the beginning of 1813, and, joined by the Prussians, made Saxony the scene of the great continental struggle against Bonaparte. In that year took place the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen, the attacks on Dresden, and the decisive engagements at Leipsic, followed by the retreat of Bonaparte to the Rhine, and by divesting his too faithful ally, the king of Saxony, of the government of his territories. Many of his subjects, however, flattered themselves that their attachment to the cause of Germany, evinced by the defection of their troops from the French army on the 18th October, would secure the integrity of their territory. The interval between the battle of Leipsic and the decision of the congress of Vienna (nearly 18 months), was balanced between hope and fear, and cruel was the disappointment of the Saxons, on finding that the northern and eastern part of their territory, containing no less than 850,000 inhabitants, was to be separated from the kingdom, and transferred to Prussia. The king protested against this dismemberment; but dreading insurrection and bloodshed, he some time after thought proper to acquiesce. A prudent policy may tend to heal the wounds of Saxony, but cannot, it is to be apprehended, insure her ultimate inde pendence; for, situated between two rival powers, this country can hardly remain a pacific spectator of their future quarrels. The succession to the crown is settled, in the event of failure of the reigning family, in the duke of Saxe-Weimar; but it is not improbable that Austria may at a future period assert her claim, founded on the right of females, and on the recent marriage of the emperor with a princess of Saxony. Prussia, on the other hand, may advance, that Saxony is, from physical po sition, an appendage of her territory, and that no claims founded on family connec tion, can justify Austria in attempting to This large province is in general level, the only hills being part of the Hartz, in the south-west corner, and a detached part of the Thuringian forest. The rest is va ried only by gentle swellings, or insignificant elevations. The soil, however, varies great ly, being in some places dry and sandy, and in others a heavy loam. No part of the Prussian states possesses a more advantage ous combination of fertile land and good husbandry, than the track. lying around Magdeburg; but the country to the north and south is in general less productive. There are some large forests, but in the far greater part wood is scarce. The principal objects of cultivation, after corn, are hemp, flax, and chicory, for making coffee. Pit coal and metals are found chiefly in the mountains of the Hartz; porcelain clay in the level ground in the south; but the product hitherto most profitable is salt, which is obtained, not from mines, but from brine springs, by evaporation. The quantity made, at present very large, might be doubled, were it not limited by the scarcity of fuel. The richest of these springs is in the government of Merseburg, where it is often difficult to find pure water for drinking, or for the purposes of cookery. The inhabitants are almost all Protestants, except in the little district called the Eichsfeld. Having enjoyed the benefits of an enlightened government, both under Prussia and Saxony, they are in general active and industrious; but their fabrics, chiefly linen and woollen, are carried on not in factories, but in the separate dwellings of the workmen. The commerce of the province is very limited, and is carried on partly by the Elbe, partly by the Havel, the Saale, and the Unstrutt, its tributary streams. SAXTEAD, a parish of England, in Suffolk, 2 miles N. W. of Framlingham. SAXTEN, a small town in the interior of Switzerland, canton of Unterwalden, on the lake of Sarnen. SAXTHORPE, a parish of England, in Norfolk, 6 miles N. W. of Aylesham. SAXTON, a parish of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, 4 miles S. by W. of Tadcaster. SAXTON'S RIVER, a river of the United States, in Vermont, which empties itself into the Connecticut, at Westminster. SAYANSKIE, a chain of mountains in Siberia, forming a prolongation of the Altai, and like them forming the line of separation between Siberia and Chinese Tartary. The Sayanskie mountains extend between the Upper Yenisei and the Lake Baikal. They consist chiefly of naked rocks of a red granite, and being entirely desert, are little frequented by travellers. They are divided into two ranges, one of which bordering on the Yenisei, derives its name from that river; the other takes its appellation from the city of Krasnoiarsk. SAYBROOK, a post township of the United States, in Middlesex county, on the west side of the Connecticut, near its mouth. Population 3996. 17 miles W. of New London. Long. 72. 24. W. Lat. 41. 18. N. SAYDA, a small town of Germany, in Saxony, situated between the rivers Flohe and Mulda. Population only 900. miles S. W. of Dresden. 27 vince of the Lower Rhine, 6 miles N. of Coblentz, and 6 E. of Andernach. Population 800. SAYN, a river of the west of Germany, which flows into the Rhine, 5 miles below Coblentz. SAYOU, a village of Western Africa, in the country of Sierra Leone, 60 miles E. N. E. of Portlogo. SAYPAN, one of the Ladrone islands, in the Eastern seas, about 20 miles in circumference. It is uninhabited like that of Tinian, and different accounts are given of its productiveness, by the different navigators who have visited it. According to some, it does not afford the same refreshments to ships that touch there as Tinian, though Anson, by whom it was visited, says that it presents an aspect not in any respect less agreeable. Byron also says, that it has a much pleasanter appearance than Tinian. Voyagers in general, however, agree in giving Tinian the preference to Saypan, both in regard to extent and beauty. On the west side of this island, at the bottom of a steep bay, well sheltered with wood, lies a safe and commodious port called Cantanhitola. This island was at one time the best peopled of all the Ladrone islands, and was not thoroughly subdued by the Spaniards, till the beginning of the 17th century. Long. 145. 55. E. Lat. 15. 13. N. SAYTAN HARBOUR, a bay on the west coast of the island of Sumatra. Long. 99. 55. E. Lat. 1. 2. S. SAZARI, a river in the north-west part of Sardinia, which, at its influx into the sea, has a harbour formed by a mole. SAZAWA, a river of Bohemia, which issues from the lake of Zdarko, flows nearly through the middle of the kingdom, and joins the Muldau below Dawle. SAZAWA, a small town of Bohemia, on the above river, 28 miles S. E. of Prague. SBAINEE, a village of Algiers, 27 miles E. of Constantina. SBEAH, a village of Tunis, in Africa, the ancient Ruspa, 20 miles S. of El Medea. SBEERAH, a town of Tunis, in Africa, the ancient Tucca Terebinthina, 50 miles. N. of Spaitla. SBECCA, a village of the Bled-el-Jereede, in the southern part of the territory of Tunis, the ancient Cerbica, 50 miles S. W. of Gafsa. SBICA, a town of Nedsjed, in Arabia, near a lake, 220 miles E. of Madian. SBOAKE, a village of Upper Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile, 5 miles N. of Tahta. SBRAZLAW, or KONIGSAAL, a small town of Bohemia, where the river Beraun joins the Muldau, 8 miles S. of Prague. SCAER, a sinall town in the west of France, in Brittany, department of Finisterre, containing, with its parish, 4100 inhabitants. 12 miles N. W. of Quimperl. SCAFATI, a small town in the west of the kingdom of Naples, in the Principato Citra, on the Sarno. Population 2300. 12 miles N. W. of Salerno. SCA FELL, a mountain of England, in Cumberland, with two peaks, the highest of which is 3166, and the lowest 3092 feet above the level of the sea. SCAFFA, or BARCA DI GARIGLIANO, a small town in the north-west of the kingdom of Naples, in the Terra di Lavoro, on the river Garigliano. 9 miles E. by N. of Gaeta. SCAFFAJOLA, or SCALFAGIUOLO, a petty lake of Italy, in the duchy of Modena, south of Fanano, remarkable for its situation near one of the highest summits of the Appenines, called les Alpes de la Croix. Its length does not exceed 200 yards, its breadth 100; and there is no truth in the popular notion, that a stone thrown so as to ruffle its surface, produces any mist or cloudiness in the surrounding atmosphere. SCAFTWORTH, a hamlet of England, in the county of Nottingham, 1 mile S. E. of Bawtry. SCAGGERAC. See Skagen, Cape of SCAGGLETHORPE, a hamlet of England, East Riding of Yorkshire, 3 miles E. by N. of New Malton. SCALA, a small town in the west of the kingdom of Naples, in the Principato Citra, formerly the see of a bishop, now united to that of Ravello. Population 1800. In the neighbourhood are some lead mines. 11 miles W. S. W. of Amalfi, and 12 W. of Salerno. SCALA NOVA, a scaport town of Asia Minor, about three leagues from the site of the ancient Ephesus. The town is well built, and the fortifications are about three quarters of a mile in circumference. To the north is a considerable suburb, in which alone the Christians are permitted to dwell. The population is reckoned by Tournefort, at 1000 Turkish families, 600 Greek, 10 Jew, and 60 Armenian. The port is secured by a small island against westerly winds, but is somewhat exposed to those from the north. The town carries on a considerable trade, supplying Samos and the neighbouring districts with grain, coffee, and cloth from Egypt, Smyrna, and Salonica. The neighbourhood yields a considerable quantity of wine, which, however, has lost its ancient reputation. This town was the Neapolis of the Milesians, and presents still the remains of some ancient structures. 40 miles S. of Smyrna. SCALA NUOVA, a small seaport of Greece, in the cast of the Morea, on the gulf of Napoli. It is inhabited entirely by Greeks, who carry on a maritime trade in their own ships, and manufacture good saffron. SCALBY, a hamlet of England, East Riding of Yorkshire, 5 miles E. of Howder. SCALBY, a village of England, in Lincolnshire, near Glanford Bridge. SCALBY, a village of England, North Riding of Yorkshire, 3 miles N. W. of Scarborough. Population 454. SCALBY, EAST and WEST, two adjacent villages of England, in Cumberland, about 6 miles N. E. of Carlisle. Population 557. SCALDWELL, a village of England, in Northamptonshire, 8 miles N. W. of Wellingborough. SCALE, OF SCALES, a village of England, in Cornwall, near the Land's End. SCALEA, a small town in the south of the kingdom of Naples, in Calabria Citra, situated on the Laino, where it falls into the gulf of Policastro. The inhabitants cultivate cotton, olives, and wine. 29 miles W. of Cassano. Long. 15. 59. E. Lat. 39. 51. N. SCALEBY, a village of England, in Cum- i berland, near Stanwix and Kirklington. SCALENGHE, a small town of the Continental Sardinian states, in Piedmont, province of Pinerolo. Population 2500. SCALFORD, a parish of England, in Lei cestershire, 4 miles N. by E. of Melton Mowbray. SCALINATA, the name given to the elevated road forming a communication between the upper and lower part of the island of Capri, in the gulf of Naples. The ascent is by a stair cut out of the solid rock, and consisting of no less than 552 steps. The summit is 1500 feet above the level of the sea. SCALLOWAY, an ancient town on the mainland of Shetland, lying on the south coast, at the bottom of a gulf of the same name, with an excellent harbour, both deep and safe. It is a small place, consisting of some scattered houses in the vicinity of the castle, which was built by one of the earls of Orkney. Long. 0. 31. W. Lat. 60. 9. N. SCALPA, a small island of the Hebrides, lying in the sound between the isle of Skye and the Mainland, about five miles long, and from two to three broad. The surface is rocky and barren. In the highest part of the island is a petrified rock of moss, in which is a variety of shells; and in many of the high grounds are found great quanti tics of shells, several feet under ground. SCALPA, a small island of the Orkneys, near the mainland of Orkney. SCALPAY, one of the Harris isles. It is a low heath covered island, much intersected by arms of the sea jutting through it in |