am convinced. Memoranda of the contents of stomachs of our two species, from many localities, all agree in giving caterpillars and canker-worms as the principal objects. They both occasionally make a piratical raid on the eggs or young of their neighbors. But such occurrences are rare; and, since, if the parent birds show a decided resistance to the invader, the cuckoo, which is a coward, beats a hasty retreat, the mischief done must be very small indeed, when compared with the benefits rendered the farmer in the destruction of myriads of noxious insects. I would unhesitatingly recommend them to the protection of agriculturists in all sections.

There now remains for our consideration but one family of our birds which have attracted the attention of farmers and others in consequence of their depredations; and this, the corvidæ, (comprehending the crows, jays, &c.,) is worthy of careful examination. These birds unquestionably render some benefits to agriculture by destroying noxious insects; but it is also undeniable that they do infinitely more mischief by robbing the nests of small beneficial birds. I have, until recently, been the champion of the crow and its relatives; but, after carefully observing their habits, I have been compelled to acknowledge that the illrepute in which they are held is well deserved. Cases innumerable have come to my knowledge where orchards have been depopulated of robins and other birds by the common crow, (in one instance four nests of young birds were killed in one day by a single pair of these pirates,) and the mischief thus done can hardly be estimated.

Let us examine the habits of the crow through all the seasons of the year, and adopting the system of numerals of the relative values of the bird before employed, ascertain the real character of its operations on the farm. During the months of January, February, and March, when the face of the country is covered with snow, the insects being dormant and the small birds away to more southern districts, most of the crows migrate from the northern to the southern States. The few that remain depend upon a scanty subsistence of seeds of wild plants and weeds, acorns, and apples that have been left on the trees in the orchard and frozen, and they occasionally capture a field-mouse that strays from its nest in the stubble-field or swamp. The life of the crow, during these months, is one of continued starvation, and the expression "as poor as a crow" may be applied to it, as well describing its condition. It succeeds in finding the cocoons of a few lepidopterous insects, meets occasionally with a beetle or larva; on the whole, its labors during these months may be called beneficial, although the good resulting from them is of so little amount that we might safely regard it as neutral. But to be beyond the chance of doing it an injustice, we will assume that during the three months above-mentioned the crow does as much good as during the month of April.

Taking the unit one to represent the labors of cach day, the crow is valuable during January, February, and March, 30 units; and in April is unquestionably 30 units more; for its food then consists almost entirely of noxious insects in their different forms. It is perfectly safe to say that it destroys 1,000 insects daily, and it is not improbable that it often exceeds this number. During the first half of May its labors are undoubtedly beneficial, for its food still consists. almost entirely of insects, but, after the middle of that month, when the small birds have begun to lay their eggs and hatch their young, the crow divides its diet pretty equally between them and the insects. Now it is not apparent, at the first glance, how immensely injurious it becomes the moment it begins to destroy the eggs and young of small birds; but we can demonstrate it to an approximation. We will allow that during the latter part of May half of its food consists of injurious insects and other vermin. It is, therefore, beneficial in the whole month about 23 units; but it is perfectly reasonable to assume that it daily destroys the eggs or young of at least one pair of sparrows, four in number; one pair of warblers, four in number, and one pair of thrushes or starlings, four in number: for I have known one pair of Canada jays to kill and devour the

callow-young of four pair of snow-birds (Junco hyemalis,) 16 birds in all, in one forenoon. Now let us see what the injury amounts to when the crow destroys the four eggs or young of the sparrows, warblers, and thrushes. As remarked on a preceding page, the young of all our small birds are fed, while in the nest, upon soft caterpillars and insects. Bradley says that a pair of sparrows will destroy 3,360 caterpillars for a week's family supplies. For four weeks, at the lowest estimate, the young of our sparrows are fed on this diet, and the family that the crow destroys would, in that time, eat at least 13,440 insects; and as they feed more or less upon the same diet during their stay in the north, killing certainly as many as 50 each, daily, the family would devour 200 per diem, or, before they would migrate in September, as many as 20,000. The warblers are entirely insectivorous, and we can certainly allow them as great destructive capacity as the sparrows. The four that the crow destroys would have devoured, before the autumnal migration, at least 30,000 caterpillars and grubs. A pair of thrushes have been seen to carry over 100 insects, principally caterpillars, to their young in an hour's time. If we suppose that the family mentioned above is fed for only six hours in the day, they would eat 600 per diem, at least, while in the nest, which, being three weeks, the amount would be 12,600, and before they would leave in the fall, allowing only 50 insects each per day, a very small number, they would, in the aggregate, kill 20,000 more. Now, we find that the crow, in one day, destroys birds that would together eat 96,040 insects before they would leave for their winter homes, or about 96 times as many as it would eat in a day if its food consisted entirely of the same. It is, therefore, injurious during the last half of May, keeping our original calculations in view, 598 units.

During the whole month of June and the first half of July, it is at least doubly destructive; for its young are possessed of voracious appetite, requiring an abundance of food to supply them. Allowing, then, that of the diet of the parent bird and its young, half consists of insects during this period, it is beneficial about 46 units; but as at least one-half of the other half consists of young birds and eggs, it is injurious during the same period at least 96 units daily, or 4,320 units for June and the first half of July. The remaining quarter of their food during this time consists of berries, and various small seeds and reptiles; and this diet may be considered as of neutral importance, economically speaking. During the last half of July, and through August and the first half of September, its diet consists of about half insects and mice, and the balance of berries and small fruits. It is, therefore, during this time beneficial about 30 units, and is not injurious otherwise than by eating garden fruits or grain, items that I have not considered in connection with its food during the year. From the middle of September until November its food loses much of its fruit character, because of the failure of supply, and it feeds at least two-thirds on insects and other noxious animals. It is, therefore, beneficial 30 units, and is not injurious; and during November and December it is beneficial to about the same extent that it is in February and March, or about 40 units.

We now find, in a general summing up of the crow's merits and demerits, that during the whole year it is beneficial to the amount of 229 units, and that it is injurious to the extent of 4,918 units. If, for the sake of the greatest indulgence, we take but one-tenth part of this enormous disproportion as the actual fact, we still have an exhibit that proves at once that these birds are not only worthless, but positively injurious.

The limits of the present sketch are such that I have been unable to present more than a brief account of the habits of some of our more familiar birds; and there are many species, even whole families, that I have not mentioned, but those presented have excited the greatest controversy among agriculturists; and if I have been able to throw any light upon the subject, or have fortunately been able to remove a little of the prejudice existing against some species, I shall feel that my labor has been a pleasant one, and that it has been well rewarded.

WINTER BEE-KEEPING.

BY MRS. ELLEN S. TUPPER, BRIGHTON, Iowa. ♦

The winters of 1865-'66 and 1866-67 were most disastrous to bees. Throughout the whole west and northwest many apiaries were decimated, and there were few bee-keepers who did not lose more or less colonies. I have taken much pains to ascertain the cause of this general loss, to discover if it was necessary, and if not, to find a sure way to prevent the like in future. To this end I have corresponded with bee-keepers in all parts of the country, receiving letters from every State in the Union, with many statistics, and from all these I am confirmed in the opinion, that all losses of bees in winter may be avoided, and that a proper knowledge of the laws which govern these insects may be made useful to such a degree as to render bee culture most certain in its results, and more independent of changes in seasons than any other rural pursuit.

A brief notice of the causes of unsuccessful wintering will be profitable. From all the facts which I have gathered, it appears that the greatest loss was not in the coldest sections of country, but in those where the greatest and most sudden changes occur. In Maine, Michigan, and Minnesota, the loss was trifling compared with that sustained in Iowa, Illinois, Missouri and Kentucky. A colony of bees of proper size to maintain the requisite heat cannot be destroyed by cold. Nature has bestowed on them the power to maintain the requisite warmth for safety, if their owner will aid them in keeping their numbers good, for in strength of numbers is their protection against cold.

Where bees are wintered (as they are in a majority of cases) out of doors, and mild, pleasant days come frequently during winter, many bees are drawn from their hives by the bright sun to become chilled and lost; and thus the cluster becomes smaller and smaller until it cannot maintain the proper temperature when the extreme of cold follows. In steady cold winters, where bees remain in a semi-torpid state and continue in the hive for months, the cluster does not grow smaller, but on the contrary is often found larger in size in the spring; because when food and warmth are abundant, brood rearing commences in December, and numbers of young bees swell the swarm by April. It is well to remember that neither of these winters which proved so disastrous to bees was peculiar, and therefore we must look further back for the causes of the loss. The spring and early summer of both these years were very favorable. The secretion of honey was unusual, and bees (as their instinct always prompts when honey is abundant) reared much brood, and where swarming was allowed multiplied greatly. Had the yield of honey continued good, all would have been well. But, on the contrary, after July 20th, in many parts of the northern and middle States, owing to various causes, little honey was secreted; and even the autumn pasturage, usually of greatest value to bees, failed entirely. Keepers found themselves with colonies largely increased in numbers, but too often occupying hives nearly empty of honey. In instances where from some cause bees had not swarmed, sufficient honey for winter use had been gathered; but the unfavorable autumn weather checked brood rearing a month earlier than is usual, and therefore many colonies went into the winter weak in numbers, though with honey enough. Thus many keepers met in the spring with the (to them) unaccountable accident of hives heavy with honey, but no live becs in them; these having perished for want of sufficient numbers. One great cause of loss in these seasons

was that agents of movable comb hives of various kinds had introduced them largely all over the country, with no care to impart the information necessary to enable bec-keepers to use the hives aright. I believe the movable comb principle in a plain hive indispensable to successful bee culture; but the very facility with which bees can be divided in these hives makes them dangerous in the hands of those who are unacquainted with the nature and instincts of the bee. Too many bought them with the idea that once in them bees might be multiplied at will, and agents too often encouraged the idea. The result, as might have been anticipated, was most disastrous. In many counties where these hives were largely sold and used, hardly a living colony of bees could be found in them the succeeding spring. Bees had been transferred, divided and subdivided, until nothing but empty hives remained. Of course the hive was (most unjustly) held responsible for the loss. By others it was thought and asserted that some fatal disease had prevailed among bees to cause such mortality; but investigation into the facts has not disclosed a single instance where this was the case. Complaints of dysentery, foul brood, and other diseases, proved incorrect, all such troubles having been caused entirely by cold, damp, or insufficient food and ventilation. If, then, all loss was occasioned by unwise increase, naturally and artificially, of colonies, prompted by a good yield of honey in swarming season, and succeeded by unusual scarcity in late summer and autumn, what security have bee-keepers in the future? I believe it possible so to keep bees that all colonies may be safe under all circumstances in any season; and also to make them profitable always. This is not theory alone with me, for in ten years of bee-keeping I have had no loss to complain of, experience fully sustaining my theory. A strong colony of bees in a well-made, movable comb hive, of proper size and shape, is always safe, can take care of itself against all enemies, and may be wintered anywhere, if properly ventilated and stored with sufficient honey. All will agree in this, and the inquiry is how bees may be kept in this condition. Swarming is the way which nature provides for an increase of colonies, and if bees are not allowed to swarm they should be divided in a manner resembling their natural way of increase. Division, or artificial swarming, may be so managed as to prevent any injury to the parent colony, if the principle which governs the matter be understood, and no step taken counter to the instincts of the bee. Bees may be increased largely if care be taken, but where one has not the time to bestow it is wiser to be contented with making one new colony from each old one in a season. Even this rate of increase, though it may be safely made, will, in some seasons, prevent the storing of much surplus honey. Where surplus honey is more an object than increase of stock, it is always best to make one new colony from two old ones, which practice is recommended to all beginners as always safe and sure to give most surplus honey. Divisions should be made as early in the season as the bees may be in proper condition. The value of all, both old and new, is increased when swarming is over by the first week in June. Those who depend on natural swarming for an increase of stock, are often troubled by over-swarming. They would be glad to prevent more than the issue of at least one swarm yearly from every hive. There is one sure way to prevent this. So soon as a swarm issues, remove the hive from which it came to a new location, some yards away, and place the hive into which the new swarm has been put directly where the parent hive stood. The princi pal part of the mature bees will thus find their way into the new hive, and that will be very strong, while the old hive will contain few except young bees, and, though it will soon be populous, no after swarm will issue. I have seen this tried in hundreds of cases without a failure, and believe it a perfect and simple way to prevent the issue of after swarms.

I find that there are bee-keepers in all new parts of the country who cannot conveniently winter bees in a cellar or house, as is always best when possible. They must winter them for the present on their summer stands, even if such a

course does involve the consumption of a greater amount of honey. Such will find no trouble if they use a square or upright form of hive; be sure, by actual weight, that the bees have honey enough, and have ventilation at the top of the hive, that moisture may escape and air pass freely, even if the entrance holes at the bottom become blocked with snow or ice. The hive known as the American I find most simple in construction, with the fewest unnecessary complications, and by far the safest winter hive. The quantity of honey necessary to secure safety to a colony through the winter varies much with locality and season. By weighing a number of strong colonies last year, it was found that the average consumption was, in October, 4 pounds; November, 4 pounds; December, 21 pounds; January, 3 pounds; February, 33 pounds; March, 5 pounds, and April 7 pounds. Judging by this, no colony should contain less than 30 pounds when the yield of honey ceases in the fall. It is better to allow too much than a scanty supply, as the greatest consumption comes in the spring for brood rearing, and if the supply is scant then, little brood will be reared until flowers bloom.

If colonies have not enough, it is, in most cases, best to unite them with others, making of two or more one good stock. This is the safest and least troublesome way. There are, however, many who are anxious to increase their bees, and unwilling to lessen the number of colonies in the fall, if it is possible to save them all. They do not regard the expenses, if, by the purchase of food, they may sécure safety and prosperity to all their weak colonies. These may feed their bees, and, by judicious care, build them up into good valuable stock. A little timely expenditure of sugar would, I doubt not, have saved thousands of colonies the past two years. Feeding, to be of value, must be so managed that the supply shall be so regular as to seem to the bees like their own stores. Spasmodic feeding, allowing the bees to suffer from want of food, and then giving them large quantities, is worse than useless. It should commence when bees first cease to find honey out of doors, and then continue so regularly that they may never want until blossoms appear in the spring. How to do this was the difficulty, but a feeder has been patented by Edward Harrison, of Springfield, Ohio, which supplies a want long felt by bee-keepers. By its use the food is placed directly over the cluster, where it is always at hand, and can be reached by the bees in the coldest weather. It can also be filled without disturbing the bees, and no robbers are attracted by it. Its cheapness and simplicity will make it indispensable to all who, for any reason, are obliged to give aid to their bees. No one must attempt to feed any colony weak in numbers, unless it can be kept in a cellar or room where the temperature is above the freezing point. It is claimed for the Italian bee that it is more hardy than the common variety. I think the difference is in the fact that the Italian queens are more prolific, and the-bees rear more brood, under the same circumstances, and thus go into winter quarters with a stronger garrison. Their ability to gather honey from plants which the other bees do not visit, is a great gain to them in poor seasons. In years when no common bees for miles around stored honey in boxes, no colony of Italians in an apiary of hundreds failed to store some. The late unfavorable seasons caused many to fear that some sections of the country were becoming overstocked with bees. That these fears are groundless is proved by the fact that the largest apiaries suffered least, and not one instance is recorded where an apiary well managed has not proved profitable. I have known instances where only half a dozen colonies were found on a square mile, and every one starved, while on the adjoining mile, possessing precisely the same resources, 200 colonies found enough to winter on. The former were weak in the spring, and the best of the season passed before they were in condition to do anything. When all bee-keepers keep all their colonies strong at all times, we shall hear no more about over-stocking, or loss of bees in winter.