rived. Unlike his predecessors, Frost was never a poetic provincial never parochial in the sense that America was still a literary parish of England. He is as native as the lonely farmhouses, the dusty blueberries, the isolated people, the dried-up brooks and mountain intervales that he describes. Loving, above everything else, the beauty of the Fact, he shares, with Robinson and Masters, the determination to tell not merely the actual but the factual truth. But Frost, a less disillusioned though a more saddened poet, wears his rue and his realism with a difference. Where Robinson is downright and definite, Frost diverges, going roundabout and, in his speculative wandering, covering a wider territory of thought. Where Masters is violent and hotly scornful, Frost is reticent and quietly sympathetic. Where Robinson, in his reticent disclosures and reminiscent moods, often reflects New England, Frost is New England.

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North of Boston is well described by the poet's own subtitle: a book of people." In it one not only sees a countryside of people, one catches them thinking out loud, one can hear the very tones of their voices. Here we have speech so arranged and translated that the speaker is heard on the printed page; any reader will be led by the kind and color of these words into reproducing the changing accents in which they are supposed to be uttered. It is this insistence that "all poetry is the reproduction of the tones of actual speech," that gives these poems, as well as the later ones, a quickly-communicated emotional appeal.

Frost is by no means the dark naturalist that many suspect. Behind the mask of "grimness" which many of his critics. have fastened upon him, there is a continual elfin pucker; a whimsical smile, a half-disclosed raillery glints beneath his most somber monologues. His most concrete facts are symbols of spiritual values; through his very reticence one hears more than the voice of New England.

CARL SANDBURG

Just so, the great Mid-West, that vast region of steel mills and slaughter-houses, of cornfields and prairies, of crowded

cities and empty skies, speaks through Carl Sandburg. In Sandburg, industrial America has at last found its voice: Chicago Poems (1916), Cornhuskers (1918), Smoke and Steel (1920) vibrate with the immense purring of dynamos, the swishing rhythms of threshing arms, the gossip and laughter of construction gangs, the gigantic and tireless energy of the modern machine. Frankly indebted to Whitman, Sandburg's poems are less sweeping but more varied; musically his lines mark a real advance. He sounds the extremes of the gamut: there are few poems in our language more violent than "To a Contemporary Bunkshooter," few lyrics as hushed and tender as Cool Tombs."

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When Chicago Poems first appeared, it was received with a disfavor ranging from hesitant patronization to the scornful jeers of the academicians. Sandburg was accused of verbal anarchy; of a failure to distinguish prose matter from poetic material; of uncouthness, vulgarity, of assaults on the English langauge and a score of other crimes. In the face of those who still see only a coarseness and distorted realism in Sandburg, it cannot be said too often that he is brutal only when dealing with brutal things; that his "vulgarity springs from an immense love of life, not from a merely decorative part of it; that his bitterest invectives are the result of a healthy disgust of shams; that, behind the force of his projectile-phrases, there burns the greater flame of his pity; that the strength of his hatred is exceeded only by the mystic challenge of his love.

THE IMAGISTS AND AMY LOWELL

Sandburg established himself as the most daring user of American words - rude words ranging from the racy metaphors of the soil to the slang of the street. But even before this, the possibilities of a new vocabulary were being tested. As early as 1865, Whitman was saying, "We must have new words, new potentialities of speech an American range of self-expression. . . . The new times, the new people need a tongue according, yes, and what is more, they will have such a tongue will not be satisfied until it is evolved."

It is curious to think that one of the most effective agents to fulfill Whitman's prophecy and free modern poetry from its mouldering diction was that little band of preoccupied specialists, the Imagists. Ezra Pound was the first to gather the insurgents into a definite group. During the winter of 1913, he collected a number of poems illustrating the Imagist point of view and had them printed in a volume: Des İmagistes (1914). A little later, Pound withdrew from the clan. The rather queerly assorted group began to disintegrate and Amy Lowell, then in England, brought the best of the younger members together in three yearly anthologies (Some Imagist Poets) which appeared in 1915, 1916 and 1917. There were, in Miss Lowell's new grouping, three Englishmen (D. H. Lawrence, Richard Aldington, F. S. Flint), three Americans (H. D., John Gould Fletcher, Amy Lowell), and their creed, summed up in six articles of faith, was as follows:

1. To use the language of common speech, but to employ always the exact word, not the merely decorative word.

2. To create new rhythms — as the expression of new moods. We do not insist upon “free-verse” as the only method of writing poetry.... We do believe that the individuality of a poet may often be better expressed in free verse than in conventional forms.

3. To allow absolute freedom in the choice of subject.

4. To present an image (hence the name: "Imagist”). We are not a school of painters, but we believe that poetry should render particulars exactly and not deal in vague generalities, however magnificent and sonorous.

5. To produce poetry that is hard and clear, never blurred or indefinite.

6. Finally, most of us believe that concentration is the very essence of poetry.

It does not seem possible that these six obvious and almost platitudinous principles, which the Imagists so often neglected in their poetry, could have evoked the storm of argument and fury that broke as soon as the militant Amy Lowell began to champion them. Far from being revolutionary, these principles were not new; they were not even thought so by their sponsors. The Imagists themselves realized they

were merely restating ideals which had fallen into desuetude, and declared, "They are the essentials of all great poetry, indeed of all great literature." And yet many conservative critics, joined by the one hundred per cent reactionaries, rushed wildly to combat these "heresies "! They forgot that, in trying to protect the future from such lawlessness as" using the exact word," from allowing "freedom in the choice of subject," from the importance of "concentration," they were actually attacking the highest traditions of their enshrined past.

The controversy succeeded in doing even more than the work of the Imagists themselves. Miss Lowell was left to carry on the battle single-handed; to defend the theories which, in practice, she was beginning to violate brilliantly. By all odds, the most energetic and unflagging experimenter, Miss Lowell's versatility became amazing. She employed Chaucerian stanzas, polyphonic prose, monologues in her native New England dialect, irregular vers libre, conservative couplets, echoes from the Japanese, translations from the Chinese, even primitive re-creations of Indian folk-lore!

The work of the Imagists was done. Its members began to develop themselves by themselves. They had helped to swell the tide of realistic and romantic naturalism a tide of which their contribution was merely one wave, a high breaker that carried its impact far inshore.

THE NEW FOLK-POETRY

In a country that has not been mellowed by antiquity, that has not possessed songs for its peasantry or traditions for its singers, one cannot look for a wealth of folk stuff. In such a country the United States, to be specific — what folk-poetry there is, has followed the path of the pioneer. At first these homely songs were merely adaptations and localized versions of English ballads and border minstrelsy, of which the "Lonesome Tunes discovered in the Kentucky mountains by Howard Brockway and Loraine Wyman are excellent examples. But later, a more definitely native spirit found expression in the various sections of these states.

Everywhere today there is a revival of interest in homespun melodies and folk-created verse. John A. Lomax has published two volumes of cowboy songs—most of them anonymous full of tang, wild fancy and robust humor. Mary Austin, Natalie Curtis Burlin and Lew Sarett are chief among those who have attempted to bring the spirit of Indian tunes and chants into our poetry. National admiration has been aroused by the Aframerican culture, as evidenced by the popularity of various collections of Negro Spirituals, "Mellows," Blues, and the work of such poets as Johnson, Cullen, Hughes. The tradition of Harte and Hay is being carried on by such racy interpreters as Harry Herbert Knibbs, Badger Clark and Edwin Ford Piper. A huge assemblage of words and music from every stratum of town, backwoods and prairie (to say nothing of barber-shops) was collected by Carl Sandburg and published in 1927 under the accurate title The American Songbag. But, of all contemporaries who approximate the spirit of folk-poetry, none has made more striking or more indubitably American contributions than Vachel Lindsay of Springfield, Illinois.

LINDSAY AND OPPENHEIM

Lindsay is essentially a people's poet. He does not hesitate to express himself in terms of the lowest common denominator; his fingers are alternately on his pen and the public pulse. Living near enough the South to appreciate the negro, Lindsay has been tremendously influenced by the colorful suggestions, the fantastic superstitions, the revivalistic gusto and, above all, by the curiously syncopated music that characterize the black man in America. In "The Congo" the words roll with the solemnity of an exhortation, dance with a grotesque fervor or snap, wink, crackle and leap with all the humorous rhythms of a piece of "ragtime." Lindsay catches the burly color and boisterous music of camp-meetings, minstrel shows, revival jubilees.

And Lindsay does more. He carries his democratic determinations further than any of his compatriots. His dream is of a great communal Art; he preaches the gospel that all