city, called Chinghwang, with other gods, man ever invented."* The tenets of and in these temples are the solstices, Buddhism require a renunciation of the equinoxes, new and full moons. The ma- world, and the observance of austerities gistrates repair to sacrifice to it and to to overcome evil passions, and fit its disthe gods of the land and grain. Over ciples for future happiness. A vow of the door of one of these temples in Can- celibacy is taken, and the priests dwell ton is this inscription: "Right and wrong, together for mutual assistance in attaintruth and falsehood, are blended on earth, ing perfection by worshiping Buddha, but all are most clearly distinguished in and calling upon his name. Their moheaven." nasteries, which are numerous, contain extensive libraries. They live by begging, by cultivating the soil around their temples, by fees for religious services, and by the sale of various trifles deemed valuable in their religion. As a class they sustain a good moral character. Of all the saints in the Chinese calendar Confucius is the chief, and there are 1,560 temples dedicated to him. The offerings presented in these temples are all eaten or used by the worshipers. It is said that there are 62,600 pigs, rabbits, sheep and deer, annually offered up to him on his altars, all cooked in the best Chinese style, and eaten by the worshipers. The church-goers in China are very numerous, the good fare served up in the temples being a strong inducement to church-going, which doubtless would prove quite irresistible 5. Drink not wine. even in a Christian country. The temples of the Yu sect are very splendid. They generally consist of a large hall approached by a flight of steps, the idol being placed on an altar or table. Pictures adorn the walls, and gilded griffins and dragons the ceilings. Each temple has its apparatus for sacrificing animals. tional worship. The form of Buddhism prevalent among the Mongols and Thibetians of the Chinese Empire furnishes in its ritual the following decalogue: 1. Do not kill sentient beings. 2. Do not steal. 3. Do not marry. 4. Do not speak falsely. 6. Perfume not the hair on the crown, nor paint the body. on a high large couch. 9. Do not eat The doctrines of the Buddhists seem mainly to rest on the principle that the world and all it contains are manifestaThere is no congregations of the Deity, but of a transient and delusive character; that the human soul is an emanation from Deity; that after death it will again be bound to matter, and subjected to the miseries and accidents of this life, unless the individual to whom it belongs, by the attainment of wisdom through prayer and contemplation, succeeds in liberating it from that necessity, and secures its absorption into that divine essence from which it sprang.‡ Buddhism is a despised creed in China, but still it prevails everywhere, and is followed more or less by all the Chinese. Dr. Morrison says: "Buddhism in China is decried by the learned, laughed at by the profligate, yet followed by all." Buddhism is doubtless as good a religion as any other in China. All creeds there are characterised by the grossest superstitions and ridiculous ceremonies. Mr. Malcolm, the missionary, gives a very favorable account of Buddhism in China. "It has no mythology," says he, "of obscene and ferocious deities; no sanguinary or impure observances; no self-inflicted tortures; no tyrannizing priesthood; no confounding of right and wrong, by making certain iniquities laudable in worship. In its moral code, its descriptions of the purity and peace of the first ages, of the shortness of man's life because of his sins, &c., it seems to have followed genuine traditions. In almost every res pect it seems to be the best religion Our limits forbid speaking extensively of the religion of the Chinese. Taouism, to which we have alluded, is a religion maintained in China by a sect called Rationalists. Its teachings are somewhat like those of Zeno. The founder of the sect was Lankiun, born B. C. 604, 54 years before Confucius. His doctrines are embodied in his great work, the Tan Teh King, or Memoir on Reason and Virtue. It is a sort of transcendentalism, making reason the es * Malcolm's Travels, vol. i., p. 322. Rationalists-Religious Toleration-Remarkable Language. 369 sence and source of everything. Retire- LANGUAGE, EDUCATION AND LITERAment, contemplation and acts of benevo- TURE.-We close this paper on China lence, are enjoined. Like the system of with a brief glance at its language, eduConfucius, it contains much that is very cation and literature. The Chinese langood and much that is very ridiculous. guage is totally unlike that of any other. It is just, however, to say, that, taken as It is a most singular invention for coma whole, the Memoir on Reason and Vir- municating ideas, something intermeditue abounds in genuine wisdom. M. ate between the hieroglyphic and alphaPanthier praises it extravagantly. He betic systems. Chinese writers ascribe says: "La sagesse humaine n'a peut- the invention of the characters of their être jamais exprimé des paroles plus language to Hwangti, one of their first saintes et plus profondes." This is un- monarchs, who lived about 2,700 years doubtedly too high praise. before Christ. While all other lanThe Rationalists worship a great guages have undergone remarkable many idols, and their pantheon also in- changes, that of the Chinese, both writcludes genii, devils, inferior spirits, and numberless other objects of worship. We must refer our readers for a full description of this religion to Mr. Williams's Middle Kingdom, where they will find the religions of China fully discussed. All religions are tolerated in China. Mahometanism is found in all the provinces; also Judaism; and besides the two leading idolatrous sects which we have mentioned there are many societies and combinations, partly religious and partly political. That called the Triad Society is described by Mr. Williams as an order similar to that of Freemasonry; but from his description it is quite certain that it resembles Freemasonry in nothing but its being a secret order. The Triad Society is unpopular in China and denounced in the Chinese Code. The operations of the order are carried on with such great secrecy that very little is known, even in China, of their numbers, internal organization, or character. The Chinese government fears them. The order extends throughout China, Siam, Singapore, Malacca, and the Eastern Archipelago. In some places out of China the order is very powerful, and practises great cruelties on those who refuse to join it.* There is among all the religious sects of China a mutual forbearance and respect which is highly praiseworthy. The government seems to care nothing about religion, only as a tool of political power. It tolerates everything that does not interfere with the state. It separates religion and politics completely, and as no sect has any state patronage, no one of them has the power to persecute. Buddhism seems to have the widest sway in China.† * Middle Kingdom, vol. ii, p. 284. ten and spoken, has remained almost the same for many long periods of time; nor has there ever existed a language spoken by so many people as that of China. The primitive characters of the language are derived from natural or artificial objects. The total number of really different characters in the language, according to Mr. Williams, is about 25,000, though authors have stated them to amount to 54,409, as does Magaillons; and Montucci fixes the number at 260,899. The Chinese editor of the largest Chinese dictionary, upon which Dr. Morrison bases his, gives it as his opinion that there are 50,000 characters, including synonyms and different forms; and, taking in every variety of tones given to the words and sounds for which no characters exist, that there are 5,000 different words. The burden of remembering so many is so great that the literati have abridged them and increased their meanings, by which they save much toil. Mr. Williams states that a good knowledge of 10,000 characters will enable one to read any work in Chinese, and write intelligibly on any subject. Prémare says, that a good knowledge of 4,000 or 5,000 characters, or even two-thirds of that number, is sufficient for all common purposes. The variations were exceedingly numerous formerly; for example: there were 42 ways of writing the word pau, "precious;" and 41 for writing tsum, "honorable." In addition to the variations in the forms of characters, the Chinese have six different styles of writing them, which correspond to black-letter, script, italic, roman, &c., in English, but much more unlike than those. It requires much study to distinguish them, and more to write them. The Chinese have Williams's Middle Kingdom, passim. Davis's labored more in the mere matter of writ China, vol. i., p. 301, Gutzlaff's Voyages. ing the forms of their language, than in Every character in Chinese has a sound, as much as in alphabetic languages, and some have more than one to express their different meanings; so that, although the character was not originally intended to delineate the sound of the thing it denoted, still the sound is the expression of the character.* Most of the compound characters are syllabic combinations. Nearly seveneighths of all the characters of the language have been formed from less than 2,000 symbols. discovering new ideas to record. This other nation had any system for general is the cause of the complexity, to a education. The great stimulus to litergreat degree, and variety of the forms of ary pursuits among the people of China their characters. All the strokes in their generally is the hope thereby of obtaincharacters are reduced to eight elemen- ing office and honor, and the only course tary ones. of education followed is the classical and historical one prescribed by law. Every department of letters, except jurisprudence, history, and official statistics, is considered secondary, and the Chinese literary graduate of fourscore is ignorant of hundreds of the most common things pertaining to many branches of science. It was about A.Ď. 600 that Taitsung, of the Tang dynasty, instituted the present plan of preparing and selecting civilians by means of study and degrees; but education has always been highly esteemed by the Chinese, and always exerted a dominant influ ence on the manners and tastes of the people. Ample provisions have always been made for diffusing learning; and the example set by the Chinese government of rewarding with substantial and elevated and lucrative offices and honors all those who excel most in literary pursuits, might well be imitated by our own more enlightened government. Such, however, is not the disposition of the government of this great republic. The general government of the United States is not, it must be confessed, as much disposed to encourage literature and science as even the despotic governments. Here one is seldom rewarded by offices and honors for his extensive literary and scientific attainments; while, be it said to the shame of our government, nearly all offices and honors are bestowed on either professed office-seekers-and their name is legion-or on men who can command the influence of those in power by their wealth. Men in this country are not selected for office because they are profound scholars and imbued with all the wisdom and sound philosophy of the age. Their learning avails them nothing; but some rich, ignorant aspirant, without even a respectable knowledge of the first principles of a liberal education, can rise to lucrative offices by the power and influence that his wealth alone gives him. The system that our general government has thus far pursued in dispensing offices is one that is any thing but encouraging to literature and literary men. Education is the foundation of our liberties, and literary men ought to be encouraged in an especial manner by the government; but The grammar of the Chinese language is unique. The use of particles supplies the place of inflexions. Neither the characters nor their names undergo any change; whether used as verbs, nouns, adjectives, or particles, they remain the same; number, gender, case, mood, tense and voice, are all indicated by adjuncts. The order of words in a sentence are, the subject, the verb, the complement direct, and the complement indirect; modifying expressions precede; the adjective stands before the substantive, and the substantive before the verb which governs it. The Chinese have many grammatical and philological works, exhibiting however an ignorance of the general laws of language. No distinction is made in Chinese in the writing of proper and common names. In most books there is no punctuation or division into sentences and paragraphs. The Chinese ridicule punctuation. The Chinese language has been pronounced to be the most complete and beautiful in the world. It may be beautiful in some respects, but it is certainly a most unwieldy vehicle of thought.† Education in China is extensively encouraged. Among the conservative influences in the Chinese system the general diffusion of education, and respect paid to literary pursuits growing out of the mode of obtaining office by literary pursuits, hold an important place. The importance of educating the people was acknowledged and practised upon in China even before the time of Confucius, B. C., 549, and at an age when no * Williams's China, vol i., p. 481. + Middle Kingdom, vol. i., chapter x. China Open ed, vol. i., p. 391. State Offices based upon Literary Merit-Examinations. 371 such, unfortunately, is not the case. It and thus obtain the approbation of the bestows no honors or rewards for high officers of their native district, they are literary attainments. The poor learned eligible for the lowest literary honors of man stands no chance for office along- the state. For this, the first degree, the side of the ignorant rich one; and this ac- examinations take place twice every counts for the well-known fact, that we three years in every province. The seldom find any office filled by one who scholars, having each a theme given owes his elevation to his literary or them from the "Five Classics," in a scientific attainments. Look over our large hall, are confined in separate boxes, widely extended republic, from Maine to prevent their receiving assistance to California, and say whether those in from others, and every avenue is strictly office are the most intelligent, most guarded by soldiers. The first degree, highly educated, and the best in all res- called Tew-tsae, having been attained, pects that our population could afford. the aspirant has to acquire two other As a general rule the most learned live honors, in the metropolis of his province, and die in comparative obscurity; while and he is then placed on the books as the médiocre are the ones elevated to eligible for employment, corresponding power and honor. to his advancement. To procure the This grave fault is not peculiar to the highest state offices, an examination general government, which has so many before the National College is necessary; offices to dispose of, but it is a character- but the very pinnacle is only arrived at, istic fault of the masses, who are for the by being examined by the emperor himmost part swayed by demagogism, and self. Every literary honor confers the the money-making influences of the day. title of mandarin,* and each degree is Look into our city offices, our legislatures, distinguished by a difference of the dress, our national congress, and see if you can which is, in some instances, very splenfind there our most learned, our wisest, did. The examinations are very rigid, and our best citizens. They are not and only a small number out of a vast there; and yet they should be. Where crowd gain honors. The examination are they? Left at home, because dema- for the third degree takes place at gogism and wealth have more influence Peking, and the traveling expenses of over the voting masses than profound the candidates are sometimes paid by learning, the highest literary and scien- government. The successful candidates tific attainments, and the many shining are all presented to the emperor, who but modest virtues consequent on high education. bestows rewards upon the three highest. The fourth and highest degree is rather an office than a degree; for, those who attain it are enrolled as members of the Imperial Academy, and receive salaries. The examination is held in the emperor's palace, in the presence of the highest personages of the empire. In China all state employments are given by competition, as school and college prizes, to the best scholars. Mr. McCulloch very truly observes, that "it is honorable to the Chinese, that for viceroys, magistrates, and other stateofficers, merit alone is the qualification; The system of education in China is the son of the poorest peasant may, by like almost everything else there, extalent and application to learning, rise ceedingly defective; but great good is to the highest employments." Schools nevertheless the result; and the regard for youth are abundant in every part of and material encouragement held out the empire; and education is so general, by the government to all scholars, is and its cost so reasonable, that reading truly praiseworthy and deserving of and writing, in China, may be almost Isaid to be universal. The schools established all over the empire are superintended by various officers, appointed by government. In every district there is a literary chancellor; but early aspirants are examined by superintendents, who make the circuit of their district twice a year for that purpose. The pupils they approve of repair to the chief, and should they pass that ordeal, VOL. XIV. ordeal imitation. Female education in China is less encouraged, but it is nevertheless favorably regarded, and not altogether neglected. Literary attainments are considered creditable to a woman, and the names of female authors, mentioned in Chinese annals, would make a long list. Yuen Yuen, the governor-general of From the Portuguese and Spanish mandar, to command. Canton, in 1820, while in office, pub- all that is known or that is to be known; lished a volume of his deceased daugh- that there is no room for further discoter's poetry; and the literary men are veries, their ancient sages having exusually desirous of having their daugh- hausted every subject. Hence the staters accomplished in music, poetry, tionary character of Chinese civilization. composition, and classic lore. Such an The scientific and philosophical works education is considered befitting their of the Chinese are those of Confucius station, and reflecting credit on the and the "ten philosophers," or his disfamily. One of the most celebrated fe- ciples and commentators. Chinese limale writers in China is Pan Hwuipan, terature has been, through ignorance of who flourished about A. D. 80. She it, very unjustly depreciated. Klaproth, wrote a work entitled female precepts, in his Memoires, vol. iii., p. 267, contrawhich has formed the basis of many dicts the statement that has so often succeeding works in Chinese on female been made, that the Chinese believed education. The aim of her writings China to occupy the centre of the world, was to elevate female character and and that it is surrounded with a few inmake it virtuous. Other Chinese author- significant and petty territories, all its esses treat on various subjects, but mostly tributaries. He says:-Je n'ai pas on morals and domestic economy. Chi- besoin de refuter ici l'idée absurde de nese literary ladies are held in general ceux qui prétendent que les Chinois respect, and more of the females of croient que leur pays est situé au milieu China can read and write their own lan- du monde. Un molelat, ou un couli du guage than is generally supposed. The Canton peut, à la vérité, donner une paChinese do not, as has been represented, reille explication, mais c'est à l'intellimake slaves of their wives, and Chinese gence de celui qui questionne de l'adopter females are in a far better condition ou de la rejeter.' than those of other pagan or unevangelized countries, or even than the females of the ancient Greeks and Romans.* The literature of the Chinese is very extensive. "It would not be hazarding too much to say," says Mr. Medhurst, "that in China there are more books, and more people to read them,than in any other country in the world. Among the 360,000,000 of Chinamen, at least 2,000,000 are literati." There is not, however, much that is original in their books, the belief of the Chinese being general that their books already contain * Williams's China, vol. i,p. 456, also the whole of the chapter. + China Opened, vol. i, p. 417. M. Abel Remusat, speaking of Chinese literature, also observes: "L'histoire littéraire, la critique des textes, et la biographie, sont le sujet d'une foule d'ouvrages remarquable par l'ordre et la régularité qui y sont ob serves. On possède beaucoup des traductions des livres Sanscrits sur la religion et la metaphysique. Les lettres cultivent la poesie, qui est assujetie chez eux au double joug de la mesure et de la rime; ils ont des poemes lyriques et narratifs, et surtout des poëmes descriptifs, des pièces de theatre, des romis en usage. On a compose en outre un très grand nombre des recueils speciaux et généraux, des bibliothèques et des encyclopédies, et dans le dernier siècle on avait commencé l'impression d'une collection des ouvrages choisies en 180,000 volumes! Les Chinois ont d'excellents dictionnaires où tous les langue sont expliqués, avec le plus grand soin, et dans un ordre tres regulier. Enfin il n'y a pas en Europe, de nation chez laquelle on mans des mœurs, des romans où les merveilleux est signes de leur écriture, et tous les mots de leur meme trouve tant des livres, ni des livres si bien fait, si commodes à consulter, et à si bas prix." Some idea further than that afforded by Remusat, may be gained of the extent of Chinese literature, from the fact, as stated by Mr. Williams, that the Sz Fu Tsiuen Shu Tsung-muh, or Catalogue of all the Books in the Four Libraries, consists, of itself alone, of one hundred and twelve octavo volumes of 300 pages each, and giving the titles, and a brief synopsis of the contents of upwards of 20,000 works, and these not all, but only the best works in the language. The catalogue arranges the books into four divisions, viz., classical, historical, professional writings, and belles-lettres. M. Remusat, Staunton, the two Morrisons, and others best acquainted with the language and literature of the Chinese, speak in the highest terms of the polite literature of the Chinese. Many of their works on history, biography, statistics, etc., are very valuable and interesting. Their biographies are both of men and women, in which latter is exhibited their high consideration for literary women. These biographies, as also many other works, are very voluminous. They have a biographical dictionary in 120 volumes. They have also a work very popular among the Chinese, entitled Memoirs of Distinguished Ladies, written by Lin Hiang, 124 B. C. They have also a very valuable work, entitled Complete Antiquarian Researches of Ma Twantin, who |