the mineral kaolinite. Prepared in this way the kaolin has a high value as a refractory material, and for forming the base of fine porcelain wares.

The crystalline rocks, which, by decomposition, would produce a kaolin, are widely spread over the northern part of Wisconsin; but over the most of the region occupied by them there is no sign of the existence of kaolin, the softened rock having apparently been removed by glacial action. In a belt of country, however, which extends from Grand Rapids on the Wisconsin, westward to Black river, in Jackson county, the drift is insignificant or entirely absent; the glacial forces have not acted, and the crystalline rocks are, or once were, overlaid by sandstone, along whose line of junction with the underlying formation numerous water-courses have existed, the result being an unusual amount of disintegration. Here we find, in the beds of the Wisconsin, Yellow, and Black rivers, large exposures of crystalline rocks, which between the rivers are overlaid by sandstone. The crystalline rocks are in distinct layers, tilted at high angles, and in numerous places decomposed into a soft white kaolin. Inasmuch as these layers strike across the country in long, straight lines, patches of kaolin are found ranging themselves into similar lines. The kaolin patches are most abundant on the Wisconsin in the vicinity of the city of Grand Rapids, in Wood county. They vary greatly in size, one deposit even varying from a fraction of an inch to a number of feet in thickness. The kaolin varies, also, greatly in character, some being quite impure and easily fusible from a large content of iron oxide or from partial decomposition only, while much of it is very pure and refractory. There is no doubt, however, that a large amount of kaolin exists in this region, and that by selection and levigation an excellent material may be obtained, which, by mingling with powdered quartz, may be made to yield a fire-brick of unusual refractoriness, and which may even be employed in making fine porcelain ware.

The following table gives the composition of the raw clay, the fine clay obtained from it by levigation, and the coarse residue from the same operation, the sample having been taken from the opening on the land of Mr. C. B. Garrison, section 5, town 22, range 6 east, Wood county:

Certain layers of the Lower Magnesian limestone, as at Ripon, and other points in the eastern part of the state, are known to produce a lime which has in some degree the hydraulic property, and the same is true of certain layers of the Blue limestone of the Trenton group, in the southwestern part of the state; the most valuable material of this kind, however, that is as yet known to exist in Wisconsin, is found near Milwaukee, and has become very recently somewhat widely known as the "Milwaukee" cement-rock. This rock belongs to the Hamilton formation, and is found near the Washington street bridge, at Brown Deer, on the lake shore at Whitefish

bay, and at other points in the immediate vicinity of Milwaukee. The quantity attainable is large, and a very elaborate series of tests by D. J. Whittemore, chief engineer of the Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad, shows that the cement made from it exceeds all native and foreign cements in strength, except the famous English "Portland" cement. The following are three analyses of the rock from different points, and they show that it has a very constant composition:

Quick-lime is made from all of the great limestone formations of Wisconsin, but more is burnt from the Lower Magnesian and Niagara formations, than from the others. The Lower Magnesian yields a very strong mortar, but the lime burned from it is not very white. It is burned largely in the region about Madison, one of the largest quarries being on the south line of section 33 of that town, where some 20,000 bushels are produced annually, in two kilns. The lime from this place has a considerable local reputation under the name of "Madison lime." The Trenton limestone is burned at a few points, but yields an inferior lime. The Galena is not very generally burned, but yields a better lime than the Trenton. In the region about Watertown and Whitewater, some 40,000 to 50,000 barrels are made annually from this formation.

The Niagara, however, is the great lime furnisher of the northwest. From its purity it is adapted to the making of a most admirable lime. It is burned on a large scale at numbers of points in the eastern part of the state, among which may be mentioned, Pellon's kilns, Pewaukee, where 12,000 barrels are made weekly and shipped to Chicago, Grand Haven, Des Moines, etc.; and Holick & Son's kilns, Racine, which yield 60,000 to 75,000 barrels annually. A total of about 400,000 barrels is annually made from the Niagara formation in eastern Wisconsin.

LIMESTONE FOR FLUX IN IRON SMELTING.

The limestones of Wisconsin are rarely used as a flux, because of their prevalent magnesian character. The stone from Schoonmaker's quarry, near Milwaukee, is used at the Bay View iron works, and is one of the few cases. There are certain layers, however, in the Trenton limestone, widely spread over the southern part of the state, which are non-magnesian, and frequently sufficiently free from earthy impurities to be used as a flux. These layers deserve the attention of the iron masters of the state.

GLASS SAND.

Much of the St. Peter's sandstone is a purely siliceous, loose, white sand, well adapted to the making of glass. It is now being put to this use at points in the eastern part of the state.

PEAT.

Peat exists in large quantities and of good quality underneath the numerous marshes of the eastern and central parts of the state. Whether it can be utilized in the future as a fuel, will depend altogether upon the cost of its preparation, which will have to be very low in order that it may compete with superior fuels. As a fertilizer, peat has always a great value, and requires

no reliminary treatment.

BUILDING STONES.

All the rocky formations of Wisconsin are used in building, and even the briefest synopsis of the subject of the building stones of the state, would exceed the limits of this paper. A few of the more prominent kinds only are mentioned.

Granite occurs in protruding masses, and also grading into gneiss, in the northern portions of the state, at numerous points. In many places on the Wisconsin, Yellow, and Black rivers, and especially at Big Bull Falls, Yellow river, red granites of extraordinary beauty and value These are not yet utilized, but will in the future have a high value.

Occur.

The handsomest and most valuable sandstone found in Wisconsin, is that which extends along the shore of Lake Superior, from the Michigan to the Minnesota line, and which forms the basement rock of the Apostle islands. On one of these islands a very large quarry is opened, from which are taken masses of almost any size, of a very close-grained, uniform, dark brown stone, which has been shipped largely to Chicago and Milwaukee. At the latter place, the well known court house is built of this stone. An equally good stone can be obtained from the neighboring islands, and from points on the mainland. A very good white to brown, indurated sandstone is obtained from the middle portions of the Potsdam series, at Stevens Point, Portage county; near,Grand Rapids, Wood county; at Black River Falls, Jackson county; at Packwaukee, Marquette county; near Wautoma, Waushara county; and at several points in the Baraboo valley, Sauk county. A good buff-colored, calcareous sandstone is quarried and used largely in the vicinity of Madison, from the uppermost layers of the Potsdam series.

All of the limestone formations of the state are quarried for building stone. A layer known locally as the "Mendota" limestone, included in the upper layers of the Potsdam series, yields a very evenly bedded, yellow, fine-grained rock, which is largely quarried along the valley of the lower Wisconsin, and also in the country about Madison. In the town of Westport, Dane county, a handsome, fine-grained, cream-colored limestone is obtained from the Lower Magnesian. The Trenton limestone yields an evenly bedded, thin stone, which is frequently used for laying in wall. The Galena and Niagara are also utilized, and the latter is capable, in much of the eastern part of the state, of furnishing a durable, easily dressed, compact, white stone.

In preparing this paper, I have made use of Professor Whitney's "Metallic Wealth of the United States," and "Report on the Geology of the Lead Region;" of the advance sheets of Volume II of the Reports of the State Geological Survey, including Professor T. C. Chamberlin's Report on the Geology of Eastern Wisconsin, my own Report on the Geology of Central Wisconsin, and Mr. Strong's Report on the Geology of the Lead Region; Mr. E. T. Sweet's account of the mineral exhibit of the state at the Centennial Exposition; and of my unpublished reports on the geology of the counties bordering Lake Superior.

WISCONSIN RAILROADS.

BY HON. H. H. GILES.

The territory of Wisconsin offered great advantages to emigrants. Explorers had published accounts of the wonderful fertility of its soil, the wealth of its broad prairies and forest openings, and the beauty of its lakes and rivers. Being reached from the older states by way of the lakes and easily accessible by a long line of lake coast, the hardships incident to weeks of land travel were avoided. Previous to 1836 but few settlements had been made in that part of the then territory of Michigan, that year organized into the territory of Wisconsin, except as mining camps in the southwestern part, and scattered settlers in the vicinity of the trading posts and military stations. From that time on, with the hope of improving their condition, thousands of the enterprising yeomanry of New England, New York and Ohio started for the land of promise. Germans, Scandinavians and other nationalities, attracted by the glowing accounts sent abroad, crossed the ocean on their way to the new world; steamers and sail-craft laden with families and their household goods left Buffalo and other lake ports, all bound for the new Eldorado. It may be doubted if in the history of the world any country was ever peopled with the rapidity of southern and eastern Wisconsin. Its population in 1840 was 30,749; in 1850, 304,756; in 1860, 773,693; in 1870, 1,051,351; in 1875, 1,236,729. With the development of the agricultural resources of the new territory, grain raising became the most prominent interest, and as the settlements extended back from the lake shore the difficulties of transportation of the products of the soil were seriously felt. The expense incurred in moving a load of produce seventy or eighty miles to a market town on the lake shore frequently exceeded the gross sum obtained for the same. All goods, wares and merchandise, and most of the lumber used must also be hauled by teams from Lake Michigan. Many of our early settlers still retain vivid recollections of trying experiences in the Milwaukee woods and other sections bordering on the lake shore, from the south line of the state to Manitowoc and Sheboygan. To meet the great want-better facilities for transportation a valuable land grant was obtained from congress, in 1838, to aid in building a canal from Milwaukee to Rock river The company which was organized to construct it, built a dam across Milwaukee river and a short section of the canal; then the work stopped and the plan was finally abandoned. It was early seen that to satisfy the requirements of the people, railroads, as the most feasable means of communication within their reach, were an indispensable necessity.

CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE & ST. PAUL RAILWAY.

Between the years 1838 and 1841, the territorial legislature of Wisconsin chartered several railroad companies, but with the exception of the "Milwaukee & Waukesha Railroad Company," incorporated in 1847, none of the corporations thus created took any particular shape. The commissioners named in its charter met November 23, 1847, and elected a president, Dr. L. W. Weeks, and a secretary, A. W. Randall (afterward governor of Wisconsin). On the first Monday of February, 1848, they opened books of subscription. The charter of the company provided

that $100,000 should be subscribed and five per cent. thereof paid in before the company should fully organize as a corporation. The country was new. There were plenty of active, energetic men, but money to build railroads was scarce, and not until April 5, 1849, was the necessary subscription raised and percentage paid. A board of directors was elected on the 10th day of May, and Byron Kilbourn chosen president. The charter had been previously amended, in 1848, authorizing the company to build a road to the Mississippi river, in Grant county, and in 1850, its name was changed to the "Milwaukee & Mississippi Railroad Company." After the company was fully organized, active measures were taken to push the enterprise forward to completion. The city of Milwaukee loaned its credit, and in 1851 the pioneer Wisconsin railroad reached Waukesha, twenty miles out from Milwaukee. In the spring of 1852, Edward H. Broadhead, a prominent engineer, from from the state of New York, was put in charge of the work as chief engineer and superintendent. Under his able and energetic administration the road was pushed forward in 1852 to Milton, in 1853 to Stoughton, in 1854 to Madison, and in 1856 to the Mississippi river, at Prairie du Chien. In 1851 John Catlin of Madison, was elected president in place of Kilbourn.

The proposed length of this article will not admit of any detailed statement of the trials, struggles and triumphs of the men who projected, and finally carried across the state, from the lake to the river, this first Wisconsin railroad. Mitchell, Kilbourn, Holton, Tweedy, Catlin, Walker, Broadhead, Crocker and many others, deserve to be remembered by our people as benefactors of the state. In 1859 and 1860, the company defaulted in the payment of the interest on its bonds. A foreclosure was made and a new company, called the "Milwaukee & Prairie du Chien," took its place, succeeding to all its rights and property.

The "Southern Wisconsin Railway Company" was chartered in 1852, and authorized to build a road from Milton to the Mississippi river. When the Milwaukee and Mississippi road reached Milton in 1852, it was not authorized by its charter to go to Janesville, but, under the charter of the Southern Wisconsin, a company was organized that built the eight miles to Janesville in 1853. Under a subsequent amendment to the charter, the Milwaukee and Mississippi company was authorized to build from Milton to the Mississippi river. The Janesville branch was then purchased and extended to Monroe, a distance of about thirty-four miles, or forty-two miles west of Milton. Surveys were made and a line located west of Monroe to the river. The people of La Fayette and Grant counties have often been encouraged to expect a direct railroad communication with the city of Milwaukee. Other and more important interests, at least so considered by the railroad company, have delayed the execution of the original plan, and the road through the counties mentioned still remains unbuilt.

The "LaCrosse & Milwaukee Railroad Company" was chartered in 1852, to construct a road from LaCrosse to Milwaukee. During the year in which the charter was obtained, the company was organized, and the first meeting of the commissioners held at LaCrosse. Among its projectors were Byron Kilbourn and Moses M. Strong. Kilbourn was elected its first president. No work was done upon this line until after its consolidation with the "Milwaukee, Fond du Lac & Green Bay Railroad Company" in 1854. The latter company was chartered in 1853, to build a road from Milwaukee via West Bend to Fond du Lac and Green Bay. It organized in the spring of 1853, and at once commenced active operations under the supervision of James Kneeland, its first president. The city of Milwaukee loaned its credit for $200,000, and gave city bonds. The company secured depot grounds in Milwaukee, and did considerable grading for the first twentyfive miles out. Becoming embarrassed in January, 1854, the Milwaukee, Fond du Lac & Green Bay consolidated with the LaCrosse & Milwaukee company. Work was at once resumed on the partially graded line. In 1855 the road was completed to Horicon, fifty miles.