by a French army under the Duke d' Angouleme, but without a declaration of war, in consequence of the decisions of the congress of Verona, in 1822. This unjustifiable act resulted in the overthrow of the Cortes; and the despotism of absolute royalty was immediately re-established.

ITALIAN STATES.

60. In the history of ITALY, during modern ages, nothing important occurred till the late convulsions, occasioned by the French revolution. The Italian states shared deeply in them, as has already appeared. It may be only added, that the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, decreed the subdivision of Italy, between the house of Austria, the king of Sardinia, the Pope, and the king of Naples. The free republics of Venice, Genoa, and Lucca, have, in consequence, been amalgamated with arbitrary sovereignties; and Austria is become the preponderating power of Italy.

SPAIN.

61. Philip V., the monarch of SPAIN, at the commencement of this period, reigned till the year 1746. During his long rule, the nation degenerated as before, from the operation of a despotic government, a superstitious and cruel religion, aided by the natural indolence of the people.

§ In 1717, the Spaniards took Sardinia; but the next year invaded Sicily, without success.

62. Philip was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VI., 1746, who was a mild and pacific prince, but whose reign is barren of those events which usually furnish matter for history. The indolent and effeminate Charles III., brother of Ferdinand, succeeded him, in 1759, who reigned till the year 1788. The principal events of his reign were, the formation of the family compact, between France and Spain; the union of these nations against England, in the American war; and their unsuccessful siege of Gibraltar.

§ In the siege of Gibraltar, twelve thousand pieces of heavy ordinance were accumulated before the place, for the numerous intended attacks by sea and land; there were, also, in proportion, gun-boats, bomb-vessels, battering ships, military stores, and ammunition. Indeed, nearly all the frigates and smaller armed vessels of the kingdom, were assembled to afford requisite assistance, and the combined fleets of France and Spain, amounting to about fifty ships of the line,

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were to cover and support the attack. But all this formidable force was employed in vain, from the almost impregnable situation of the fort. and the valour of its defenders. It seemed as if so many cannon and other means of destruction, playing upon the rock, would have annihilated it-all looked like a mass of fire in and around it, but the loss sustained by the besieged was much less than might have been expected, while that of the Spanish and French was immense. The mortification which the Spaniards always have felt, ever since this fortress fell into the hands of the English, was greatly increased by the unsuccessful issue of this celebrated siege..

63. Charles IV. possessed the crown upon the death of his father, 1788. He was an inefficient and unfortunate monarch. In 1792, he entered into a league against the French republic, but being defeated, he united with France against Great Britain. After the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, Spain professed to be neutral, till the capture of several of her treasure ships, by a British squadron, after which, the weakness of the government led to an insurrection, and Ferdinand VII. dethroned his father.

The father and son, under the influence of French intrigue afterwards appealed to Napoleon, to whom the father formally surrendered his kingdom, at Bayonne, for the purpose of defeating the claims of his son; who, after being also obliged to sign a renunciation of the throne, was then treacherously detained a state prisoner, at Compeigne, in France. From this period, the situation of Spain, appears in the account already given concerning France.

§ Since the restoration of the general peace, Spain has been more unfortunate than any other of the European communities. Abroad, she has lost her colonies in South America; at home, the horrors of anarchy and internal war, and, at length, of despotism and the Inquisition, she has been doomed to bear.

Portugal has experienced scarcely a milder fate than Spain. Its situation since the emigration of the royal family to Brazil, has been singular, and at the present time, is deplorable. A monarch residing in a colony, and governing the parent state, is altogether a novelty in the history of the world; yet such has been the fact in regard to the emperor of Brazil. At this moment, the despotism of the usurper, Don Miguel, is producing consternation and distress among the adherents of the regular government.

The history of Portugal, from the time of its independence under John, duke of Braganza, in 1664, to the time of the French revolution, is of so little consequence, that it has been omitted altogether. Since the latter period, the incidental notices which have been given of its affairs, must suffice. It may be remarked, that the Portuguese

are still rich in colonial possessions, notwithstanding they have lost most of what they used to hold in Asia.

THE NETHERLANDS.

64. The history of the Netherlands, under the name of Holland, was briefly sketched in the period preceding the last. Holland, as including seven united provinces, and as constituting an independent nation, was the most important portion of the Low Countries. The character of its inhabitants, as an eminently enterprising and industrious people, also placed them at the head of these countries. In the ages preceding the French revolution, their commerce was exceeded by that of no nation, and wealth from this source poured in upon them apace. Their maritime force was consequently extensive, and they had numerous collisions with their great rivals, the British, who were destined, at last, far to surpass them in riches and naval power.

Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century, it was apparent, that the Dutch were falling from their high elevation. Indolence, luxury, and avarice, the consequence of wealth, had, in a degree, affected this excellent people; and their spirit, which would otherwise have been invincible, yielded to French intrigue and military enthusiasm, at the era of the revolution.

The ten provinces, called Belgium, or Flanders, since they were freed from the Spanish yoke, have been usually divided into Austrian, French, and Dutch Netherlands. Prussia, also, has shared in them; and, indeed, they have often changed masters. They were swallowed up eventually in the great political vortex, to which reference has been so frequently made.

§ No space remains for an account of the stadtholders of Holland, since the time of Maurice, who was mentioned in the eighth period. Nor is their history very important, as the stadtholdership was several times abolished. During the separate times of its existence, it has been held by the princes of the house of Orange.

65. After the United Netherlands were overrun by the French, in 1795, and the stadtholder and his family were obliged to flee to England, the whole country was oppressed and plundered by the French, and the melancholy spectacle was presented, of ruined commerce and civil discord, with an

incredible mass of public and individual suffering. Besides misery at home, there was loss abroad; and Holland, rich in colonies, was stripped of most of them, by means of the revolutionary wars, in which she was involved.

In 1814, the prince of Orange was recalled, and Flanders being annexed to Holland, and forming one kingdom, he assumed the title of king of the Netherlands.

§ The restoration of the state of the Netherlands, was one of the principal points in the restoration of the political system of Europe, effected by the congress at Vienna. That its fate was connected with the fate of the Belgic, no less than the Batavian provinces, appeared from the fact, that Belgium, in the hands of France, first opened the avenue to universal dominion. It was felt to be necessary, to found there a powerful state, which, at least in alliance with Prussia, should be strong enough for its own defence; and the union of all the Netherlands into one kingdom, was resolved on by the Congress. The sovereign of the house of Orange adopted the royal title, and gave them a free constitution.

TURKISH EMPIRE.

66. In the history of TURKEY, we perceive the evidences of a rapid decline, from about the commencement of the present period. The people have been extremely depressed, and the nature of their institutions is such as to preclude, in a great measure, the improvements common to the rest of Europe. Some changes have very recently been effected. The discipline of the army has been improved, and the ancient body of the Janizaries, so formidable to the government and its master, has been broken up by the present energetic Sultan. Yet the empire, as it respects European dominions, is now on the brink of destruction,* from the victorious career of the Russians. From its conflicts with that people, it has generally retired, shorn of some portion of its territories, and with diminished strength and resources. With Persia, also, it has often fought, but on more equal terms.

At the commencement of this period, Achmet III. was the reigning Sultan. He was deposed in 1730, since which time,

* By the late treaty of peace, which the Sultan ratified, on the 20th Septem ber, 1829, European Turkey is nominally preserved in independence; but the terms of pacification were so favourable to Russia, that the latter enjoys almost every advantage which would accrue from the actual possession of the country.

there have been seven sultans, viz. Mahomet V., Osman III., Mustapha III., Achmet IV., Selim III., Mustapha IV., and Mahmoud II., the present sultan.

§ Under Mustapha III., Turkey and Russia engaged in a furious and bloody war, which lasted from 1769, to 1774. By means of a fleet which sailed to the Archipelago, the Russians seized a part of the Morea, whose inhabitants soon rose in a general revolt, and declared in favour of Russia. But the sultan sent an army to the Peninsula, and quelled the revolt, inflicting the severest punishment on many of the unhappy Greeks. This war was disastrous to the Turks.

The war was renewed by Achmet IV., in 1787, and concluded not until 1792, under Selim III. Important concessions were made to Russia. Koutousoff greatly distinguished himself in this war, as did also Suwarrow. It was during the reign of Selim, that Bonaparte invaded Egypt, and the transactions took place in regard to that country, which have been related in the history of France. Achmet, and also his successor, Mustapha IV., were deposed and murdered by the Janizaries.

The Porte had kept itself remote from the convulsions connected with the French revolution, with the exception of the war with Russia, from 1809 to 1812, which cost it Bessarabia, and a part of Moldavia. Assisted by the powerful Bashaw of Egypt, the Porte was more active in Arabia, against the Wechabites, than in Europe, the tranquillity of which it is not for its interest to disturb, if it be itself left in quiet. This, however, has not been suffered to be the case, since the year 1821. Since that time, it has had an almost incessant struggle with the Greeks, and lately it has been involved in a ruinous war with Russia.

The inhabitants of Greece, oppressed beyond endurance by the barbarous Turk, and recalling to remembrance their ancient freedom, and their ancient renown, have asserted their rights by arms. An insurrection broke out simultaneously, in almost every section of the territory, and has been pursued on both sides, on the mainland, and on the sea, with a furious rancour. After eight years of unprecedented suffering, Greece has become effectively free, by its own heroism, and the interference of Russia, France and England.

The insurrection, which has thus terminated in securing the liberties of Greece, broke out in the month of April, 1821, in Moldavia, and almost at the same time, in the Morea, as well as on most of the islands of the Archipelago. Of these islands, the naval force was generally superior to the Turkish. At the end of the year 1821, the Turks were driven from the Morea and the islands, with the exception of the garrisons of several strong fortresses. But these portions of Greece, have since been repeatedly harrassed by the vindictive Turks, till lately, their contest with Russia, for their own exis tence, has absorbed every other interest.