The pilum was a long heavy spear, and a terrible weapon in the hand of a Roman. No defensive armour or covering could resist its force, when propelled so as to reach its object. Its length was about six feet, and its head consisted of a triangular point of steel 18 inches long. The distance from which it was commonly thrown, varied from ten to six yards. When the pila were discharged, the Roman soldiers rushed upon the enemy with their swords.

The Roman sword was a short two-edged blade of fine temper, adapted to the purpose of striking or thrusting. The latter was deemed the most efficacious.

The legions were usually drawn up in three lines. The first was called hastati, and consisted chiefly of young men. The second line was called principes, consisting of men of middle age; and the third line triarii, consisting of veterans of tried valour.

Besides these heavy armed legionaries, there were light-armed troops, who were chiefly employed in using slings, bows and arrows, and throwing light javelins. They advanced before the rest of the army, and annoyed the enemy as much as possible.

When the army approached the enemy, the light-armed troops discharged their arrows and slings, and as they drew nearer, threw their darts rapidly, and retreated through intervals between the ranks, or by the flanks, and rallied in the rear. The hastati then threw their long javelins, and commenced an attack with their swords.

When repulsed or fatigued, they retired leisurely into the ranks of the principes, or behind them, if necessary. The triarii were a body in reserve. If unable to drive back the enemy, a retreat was all that could be hoped for.

In besieging a town, the method of the Romans, and indeed of all ancient nations, differed much from that of the moderns, since the use of cannons, and was inferior to the latter.

The principal engines of attack among the Romans were the catapulta, which discharged heavy stones; the balista, which discharged arrows, and the aries or battering ram, which was the most effective as applied against the wall.

§ The aries was a long beam, like the mast of a ship, armed at one end, with iron in the form of a ram's head. It was suspended in such a manner, that 100 men, who were frequently changed, by violently thrusting it back and forth, could break almost any wall, that it could be made to reach.

To protect the soldiers in this work, various contrivances were adopted, such as sheds called testudines, or tortoises, from their resemblance to the shell of that fish, and sheds called vineæ, constructed of wood and hurdles, and covered with earth and raw hides, so that they could not be set on fire.

The form of a Roman camp of two legions, was a square of nearly 700 yards on each side, with tents and quarters, laid

out in the most regular order. A rampart of 12 feet high surrounded this square, and it was enclosed by a deep and broad ditch.

This was the effect of caution, an excellent feature of Roman discipline. No circumstances as to fatigue, or the absence of danger, could induce the legions of Rome to neglect a regular encampment. When their camps were to be left, nothing could exceed the celerity of their movements. Each soldier loading himself with his provisions and utensils, a weight of 60 pounds, besides his very heavy armour, would march by regular step, 20 miles in the space of six hours...

The Roman soldiers were among the best in the world. From the constant practice of athletic exercises, they were inured from infancy to hardiness and fatigue, and bred to that species of life which a soldier leads in actual warfare. Their bravery and knowledge in the art of war were not exceeded, if they were equalled, by any nation of antiquity.

The rewards of soldiers who had distinguished themselves were various kinds of crowns, ornaments of the persons and arms, and donations in money or lands. But the highest object of Roman ambition was the honour of a triumph. This was a grand, solemn procession through the city to the capi tol, granted to the victorious general and his army by a decree' of the senate, or by the people.

§ The procession which constituted a triumph, marched from the Campus Martius through the most public streets to the capitol. Musicians of various kinds led the way; oxen, with gilt horns and ribbons, intended for sacrifice, followed, with priests in their dresses of ceremony. Then the standards taken from the enemy, the arms, spoils, &c. were carried in procession. The captives followed in chains.

At length came the general in a robe of purple and gold, with a crown of laurel on his head, and other personal brilliant decorations. He stood in a gilded chariot adorned with ivory, drawn by four milkwhite horses. His friends and relations accompanied him, and the principal officers were on horseback beside his chariot. His victorious army, crowned with laurel, and singing songs of victory, came last. An ovation was a triumph also, but accompanied with less splendour.

66. Fleets. The Roman ships were extremely small compared with modern vessels. They were quickly constructed and quickly manned. Sailors and rowers were hired to navigate. Soldiers were put on board to fight.

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The success of the Romans at sea was owing rather to the valour of their men, than to their skill as mariners. Their object in seabattles, was to approach the enemy as quickly as possible, fasten the ships together, and fight hand to hand.

Until the first Punic war, the Romans were wholly ignorant of the

naval military art. A Carthaginian galley was the first model. So little skill was required in building their ships, that we find them on one occasion, fitting out, and sending to sea, a fleet within 45 days after the trees were cut down.

The size of the ships was reckoned by the number of banks of oars, placed in benches on the sides of the ship, called triremes, quadriremes, &c.

67. Agriculture. In the earliest and best ages of their existence, the Roman people were much given to agriculture. Except that they were frequently interrupted by war, they might be considered as an agricultural people. They were at once soldiers and farmers.

Many of them residing out of the city, and yet denizens of Rome, were called from the plough to the army. This was the case with several of their most distinguished men and generals, as Q. Cincinnatus, M. Curius, Cato the Censor, and Scipio Africanus.

The pursuits of agriculture were however abandoned, after the acquisition of wealth by foreign conquests and commerce. Menials and slaves tilled the ground, and the people abandoned themselves to every species of luxury and sensuality.

§The attention of the early Romans to husbandry was partly the effect of necessity. The lands having been divided into equal and minute portions, each one was obliged to labour for a subsistence.

The greater number of the farmers visited the city only on every ninth day, which was the market day. They went there for the purposes of barter, the procuring of necessaries, and the examination of the new laws which were posted on the capitol and in the marketplace, some days previously to their adoption by the people.

We may obtain a better conception of the agricultural turn of this people, from knowing a few of their common maxims on this subject, than from any description. Those maxims were such as the following:

1. He is a thriftless farmer that buys any thing which his farm can produce.

2. He is no husbandman who does any work in the day time, that can be done in the night, except in stormy weather.

3. He is worse who does on work days, what he may do on holy. days; and

4. He is the worst of all who in a clear sky works within doors, rather than in the field.

68. Amusements and Public Spectacles. The drama, though the government was long unfriendly to it, became an amusement of the Roman people. Comedies were the most popular, and very few Roman tragedies remain.

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