On the stage, pantomimes were much in use, and rope dancers occasionally diversified the entertainment.

§ Rude plays, made up with music, dancing, and buffoonery, were in use in the earlier periods of the republic; but the first regular play was written by Livius Andronicus, in the year of the city 512.

The comic actors wore a low-heeled shoe called soccus; the tragic actors wore a mask, a flowing robe, and a high-heeled shoe called cothurnus. Only temporary theatres were used at first.

The senate correctly judging that theatrical amusements were inju rious to the public morals, so late as the year of the city 599, ordered a theatre, building under the direction of the censors, to be pulled down. Pompey the Great, was the first who built a theatre of hewn stone, and the remains of this vast edifice still continue, and are used by the present Romans for the baiting of bulls.

There were various public games, connected however with the religion of the Romans, which were sources of much licentious entertainment. Those of the Circus Maximus were most frequented. The shows exhibited in that place were chariot and horse-races; contests of strength and agility; mock-fights on horseback; combats of wild beasts, and of men with wild beasts; representations of horse and foot battles; and mimic naval fights.

§ The ferocious taste of the Romans was much gratified with the combats of wild beasts, and of men with the latter. Criminals were condemned to fight with wild beasts; others did so for hire, or from native ferocity of character.

For the amusement of the people, lions, leopards, bears, elephants, and all kinds of wild beasts, were sent from Africa and the provinces. Pompey, on one occasion, treated the people with the spectacle of 500 lions, which were despatched in five days.

The gladiatorial shows, however, had superior attractions for the Romans. It is painful to observe this most distinguished people finding their chief pleasure in the combats. wounds, and death of multitudes of their fellow-creatures. Yet not only the populace, but the knights, senators, and Roman ladies of distinction, eagerly crowded to the sight.

§ The first gladiatorial shows were exhibited about the year of the city 490, by two brothers called Bruti, at the funeral of their father. Afterwards they were exhibited by the magistrates at regular periods, and at length they became the chief means of obtaining favour with the people. They were not entirely abolished till the reign of Theodosius the Great.

Incredible numbers of captives, &c. were destroyed on these occasions. Trajan exhibited games for 123 days, when 10,000 wild beasts were killed, and 10,000 gladiators fought. During the reign of Clau dius was exhibited the spectacle of 19,000 men slaughtering one another on a certain lake, for the amusement of the Roman populace.

Gladiators consisted chiefly of slaves, captives, and condemned malefactors; but sometimes free-born citizens became gladiators for hire. Even persons of noble birth were induced to display their skill and courage before the people, in these combats.

There were various sorts of armour, and various modes of fighting, One mode was the use of the net, With that a gladiator would entangle his opponent, by casting it over his head; and suddenly drawing it together, could despatch him with his dart. If he missed his aim, he betook himself to flight, preparing his net for a second cast, while his opponent in the pursuit endeavoured to despatch him, before he could have an opportunity.

Amphitheatres were erected for the convenience of the spectators. The most celebrated was the Coliseum already mentioned. Large coverings were drawn over the amphitheatres, as a screen from the heat of the sun, or from rain.

69. Education. The system of education among the Romans, when in their most intellectual state, that is, about the time of Cicero, was much to be admired. The utmost attention was bestowed on the early formation of the mind and character.

The Roman matrons themselves nursed their children. Next to the care bestowed upon their morals, a remarkable degree of attention seems to have been given to the language of children. The attainment of a pure and correct expression was a great object. The honours of the state were the prize of eloquence. The politeness which characterized the Romans shewed itself particularly in their speech and gesture.

§ The education of the Romans at first suited their rude state of society and their simple manner of life. But upon their intercourse with the Greeks, a more liberal form of education was adopted. Public schools were opened for the reception of youth of both sexes. In literature and the accomplishments of polished life they were alike instructed.

From the earliest dawn of reason a course of discipline was pursued by some matron of the family; and as children grew towards manhood, they were habituated to all the athletic exercises that could impart agility or grace, and fit them for the profession of arms.

At the age of 17 they were invested with the manly robe, and young men of family were placed under the protection of some senator of distinguished reputation in jurisprudence. Although he was not considered a preceptor, yet under his auspices they were initiated into public business.

Eloquence and the military art were the surest roads to preferment. These accordingly were made commanding objects of pursuit with the Roman youth. Eloquence was taught as a science at public schools.

From the care which the Romans bestowed upon the education of

their youth, both male and female, arose the large number of great men and eminent women which Rome has produced, and the vir· tues with which they were adorned, during the brilliant era of the republic. Happy, could their history be closed at that epoch; but the tide of luxury afterwards swept away the most valuable of their institutions.

70. Literature. Previously to their intercourse with Greece, the Romans, though a sensible and energetic, were a rude and illiterate people. Their language for a long time was in a very imperfect state. The very few fragments of sentences which have come down to us from an early period, such as are found in the "Fratres Arvales," and "Leges Regiæ," show a great difference between the language then in use, and that which was employed during the age of Augustus.

After successive improvements, the Romans became renowned in literature during the last named period. The master-pieces of Greece, kindled the fire of emulation. Roman literature, in the Augustan era, was inferior to that of the Greeks, only because it was necessarily less original and more imitative than theirs. In some respects the Romans improved upon their models. Poetry, history, oratory, philosophy, and the various kinds of fine writing, were cultivated with great

success.

The dawning of Roman literature appeared in the writings of Livius Andronicus, Plautus, Ennius, Cæcilius, and Terence. These writers improved and polished the language, partly by original compositions, and partly by translations from the Greek.

Poetry among the Romans, as with most other nations, appears to have been the earliest intellectual effort. Of this we have an instance in the Fescennine verses, mentioned by Livy, which are supposed to have been a rude poetical dialogue. This doubtless proved to be the germ of the stage. Other species of poetry naturally followed.

The names that adorned the Roman drama were Livius Andronicus; Ennius, who more especially improved it; Plautus, who wrote with strength and spirit; Cæcilius, who is reckoned the best of the Roman dramatists; Terence, who excels in simplicity and purity; Accius, and Pacuvius, who though rough in style shewed strength of genius. All these except the two last were comic wri

ters.

The lyric poetry of the Romans owns the names of Catullus, the earliest in this kind of poetry; and Horace, the greatest among the Romans, if not of antiquity, though he is highly to be censured on account of his occasional indelicacy.

In elegiac poetry, Propertius, and Tibullus poured their tender and elegant strains, and Ovid uttered the language of nature and passion. The two last especially offend on the score of morals.

Of satiric poetry, Lucillius is said to be the inventor: Horace also excelled in this species of poetic composition. Some other names among the Romans, are distinguished as satirists, but they belong to a subsequent era.

In didactic poetry, Lucretius is a great name; and of epic poetry Virgil is prince among the Romans. Homer among the Greeks, and Virgil among the Romans, have come down to us with almost equal

renown.

History was cultivated by the Romans with much success, particularly during the Augustan age.

§ The most eminent of their historians were Sallust, who excelled in the philosophy of history; Cæsar, who wrote with purity and simplicity; but especially Livy, whose judgment, perspicuity, copiousness, and eloquence, place him at the head of Roman historical wri

ters.

Oratory was a favourite study at Rome, as it led to the highest honours of the state. The most distinguished senators are said to have exercised their talents in public speaking, in behalf of the poor and oppressed. The characteristics of Roman eloquence were seriousness, copiousness, and majesty.

§ J. Cæsar, Hortensius, and particularly Cicero, distinguished themselves as public speakers. Of Cæsar it is said that "he spoke with the same force with which he fought." Hortensius was eclipsed only by Cicero. And Cicero is the rival of Demosthenes in fame.

Philosophy made its first appearance at Rome, in the interval between the war with Perseus, and the third Punic war. It was derived from Greece. The various systems of the Greek philosophy, had their respective partisans at Rome. § A few learned Achæans, banished from their country, and arriving at Italy, diffused a taste for philosophy, polite learning, and the education of youth. Fearing foreign manners with foreign studies, the senate banished the Greek philosophers from Rome. But the Athenian embassy arriving soon after, brought thither Carneades and Critolaus, who revived the taste for the Greek philosophy.

The system of the Stoics was at first more generally received, as this comported with the national character. Among the Roman stoics, were Scipio, Lælius, and the younger Cato.

The philosophy of Aristotle was little known in Rome till the time of Cicero. Cratippus and Tyrannion then taught his system with great reputation.

The Old and New Academy had each its advocates and disciples Marcus Brutus, and Terentius Varro, were ornaments of the former Of the New Academy, Cicero must be considered as the principal

supporter, though his design seems to have been rather to illustrate the Greek philosophy in general. He was the greatest of the Roman philosophers, if not on the whole the greatest man of all antiquity.

With the introduction of luxury, the philosophy of Epicurus became fashionable. The poet Horace was a devotee to this system, as also Lucretius, and many others, who very liberally indulged their appetites, and taught others to indulge them.

Physics, or natural philosophy, seems to have been little cultivated by the Romans or by the Greeks before them. Varro is the only name conspicuous in this department, in the annals of antiquity.

In some instances, splendid libraries were attached to the galleries of some affluent patricians, who patronized learning. These libraries were open to the inspection of the learned and curious, and contributed greatly to the advancement of knowledge at Rome.

Among these, the library of Lucullus was remarkable, not only for the number and variety of the books, and specimens of art, but for the liberal use to which it was devoted.

71. Arts. The Romans are not to be compared with the Greeks, as to native taste and inventive genius, as the fine arts are concerned. They admired and imitated the masterpieces of Greece. But in execution, for the most part, they fell short of their models. By help derived from Grecian genius, they have, however, left many wonderful specimens in the arts, particularly in architecture.

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§ Their conquest of Greece secured to them as spoils the noble productions of Greece in painting and statuary. With these the wealthy Roman citizens adorned the city, its temples, and porticoes, and their own private dwellings.

The names of few Roman artists occur. Vitruvius wrote the only book on architecture that is now extant. He shews that he was a master of his profession. In great and magnificent works, Rome has manifested her unbounded wealth and luxury.

In the mechanic arts some inventions, occur, and a degree of perfection was attained among the Romans of ancient history. These however have been greatly extended and im proved in more recent ages; and many comforts which we enjoy, derived from a knowledge of mechanism, were unknown to this people.

§ Such conveniences as glass windows and chimneys in houses, not to mention many others, the Romans did not possess; though, their ingenuity supplied the want, in part, by various expedients,

72. Domestic Life and Manners. The houses and furni-, ture of the early Romans were entirely plain in their con