the most incapable of a state of inactivity and idleness, may be set to work; and by this means made to cultivate, what would else lye fallow, the faculties both of his mind and body.

Now concerning this technical improvement of moral good, it is, in artificial bodies, as in natural: Two may be so essentially constituted as to be greatly able to adorn and strengthen each other. But then, as in the one case a mere juxta-position of the parts is not sufficient, so neither is it in the other; some union, some coalition, some artful insertion into each other will be necessary. But now again, as in natural bodies, the artist is unable to set about the proper operation, till he hath acquired a reasonable knowledge of the nature of those bodies which are the subject of his skill; so neither can we know in what manner religion may be best applied to the service of the state, till we have learned the real and essential natures both of a state and a religion. The obvious qualities of both sufficiently shew that they must needs have a good effect on each other, when properly applied*; as our artist, by his knowledge of the obvious qualities of two natural bodies, we suppose discerns as much; though he hath not yet gotten sufficient acquaintance with their nature, to make a proper application.

* Non natura, sed hominum vitio factum, ut ambæ illæ potestates, quæ 'amico fœdere conjungi debuerant, in dedecus Christiani nominis aliquando divellantur ab invicem. Marca, Epistola ad Cardinalem de Richelieu. F. T.

CHA P. IV.

OF THE NATURE AND END OF CIVIL SOCIETY: AND THE CAUSES OF THE COMMON MISTAKES CONCERNING IT, DISCOVERED AND EXPLAINED.

IT behoves us, therefore, in the next place, to examine the nature of CIVIL SOCIETY and RELIGION more at large. Of whose natures to be truly informed, the way is to find out their ends. And this will be the more necessary on account of the wonderful extravagances that the several sects amongst us have run into, concerning one and the other society; while some strike at the administration, some at the nature, and some at the very being of both. The PAPIST makes the state a creature of the church; the ERASTIAN makes the church a creature of the state: the PRESBYTERIAN would regulate the state on church ideas; the HOBBEIST, the church, on reasons of state: And, to compleat the farce, the QUAKER abolishes the very being of a church; and the MENNONITE suppresses the office of the civil magistrate.

But to begin with Civil Society. It was instituted either with the purpose of attaining all the good of every kind, it was even accidentally capable of producing; or only of some certain good, which the institutors, unconcerned with, and unattentive to, any other, had in view. To suppose its end the vague purpose of acquiring all possible accidental good, is, in politics, a mere solecism; as hath been sufficiently shewn by the writers* on this question. And how

untrue

* See Locke's Defence of his Letters of Toleration. This appears to have been Aristotle's opinion from these words-quo

μὲν

untrue it is in fact, may be gathered from what we have said above, of the Origin of Society. Civil Government then, I suppose, will be allowed to have been invented for the attainment of some certain end or ends, exclusive of others: and this implies the necessity of distinguishing this end from others. Which distinction arises from the different properties of the things pretending. But, again, amongst all those things which are apt to obtrude, or have in fact obtruded, upon men, as the ends of civil government, there is but one difference in their properties, as ends; which is this, That one of these is attainable by civil society only; and all the rest are easily attained without it. The thing then, with that singular property, must needs be the genuine end of civil society. And that is no other than SECURITY

TO THE TEMPORAL LIBERTY AND PROPERTY OF

MAN. For this end, as we have shewn, civil society was invented; and this, civil society alone is able to procure. The great, but spurious rival of this end, THE SALVATION OF SOULS, or the security of man's future happiness, belongs, therefore, to the other division. For this, not depending on outward accidents, or on the will or power of another, as the body and goods do, may be as well attained in a state of nature, as in civil society; and therefore, on the principles here delivered, cannot be one of the causes of the institution of civil government; nor consequently one of the ends thereof *.

But if so, the promotion of it comes not within

the

μὲν ἐν διώρισαι τὸ θῆλυ, καὶ τὸ δέλον· ἐδὲν γὰρ ἡ φύσις ποιεῖ τοιῦτον, οἷον χαλκολύποι τὴν [Δελφικὴν] μάχαιραν, πενιχρῶς, ἀλλ ̓ ἣν πρὸς ἔν' δε. Polit. 1. i. c. 1.

* See note [B] at the end of this Book.

the peculiar province of the magistrate *. For he who has nothing to do with the end, can have no concern with the means. These means are DOCTRINE AND MORALS, which compose what is called RELIGION, in the largest sense of the word-That opinions are not in his ressort, I again refer the reader to Mr. Locke's discourses on Toleration; where it may be seen, how, from the principles here laid down, the whole doctrine of religious liberty is demonstrated and that even morals are not, when considered only in a religious sense, how strange soever this assertion may appear, is evident both from the reason of things, and from the fundamental practice of all governments.

:

We have shewn they were the bodies, not the souls of men, of which the magistrate undertook the care. Whatever therefore refers to the body, is in his jurisdiction; whatever to the soul, is not. But, and if there be that which refers equally to both (as morals plainly do) such thing must needs be partly within and partly without his province; that is, it is to be partially considered by him; his care thereto extending so far only as it affects society. The other considera

* Summa divini numinis benignitate duobus maximis præsidiis instructa est humani generis societas ad felicitatem consequendam, Sacerdotio et Imperio; quorum alterum divinis mysteriis se impendit, alterum componit reipublicæ statum, et humanæ vitæ tranquillitatem procurat; ita ut ex utriusque concordia Christiana respublica cumulatissimis incrementis augeatur. Utraque potestatum suis limitibus est circumscripta, et in dissitis omnino negotiis exercetur; cum illa spiritualibus addicatur, hæc publicis occupata sit-certæ quidem regulæ in genere assignari possunt, quibus invicem disterminentur.-Et en parlant des difficultez qui peuvent survenir entre ces deux puissances, l'Auteur ajoûte-Quæ locum habent non in controversiis fidei, quæ longo intervallo remotæ sunt e cognitione principum, nec in rerumpublicarum administrationibus, quæ alienæ sunt a cura pascendi gregis. Marca in præfatione prima. F. T.

tion of it, namely as it makes part of religion, being in the hands of those who preside in another kind of society; of which more hereafter.

Again, with regard to civil practice; if we cast our eye on any digest of laws, we shall find that evil actions have their annexed punishment denounced, not as they are VICES, i. e. not in proportion to their deviation from the eternal rule of right: nor as they are SINS, i.e. not in proportion to their deviation from the revealed will of God; which two things indeed coincide: But as they are CRIMES, i. e. in proportion to their malignant influence on civil society.

But the view in which the state regards the practice of morality is evidently seen in its recognition of that famous maxim by which, in all communities, penal laws are fashioned and directed, THAT THE SEVE

RITY OF THE PUNISHMENT MUST ALWAYS RISE IN PROPORTION ΤΟ THE PROPENSITY ΤΟ THE

CRIME. A maxim evidently unjust, were actions regarded by the state as they are in themselves; because the law of nature enjoins only in proportion to the ability of the subject; and human abilities abate in proportion to the contrary propensities :-evidently impious, were actions regarded by the state as they refer to the will of God, because this state-measure directly contradicts his method and rule of punishing. But suppose the magistrate's office to be what is here assigned; his aim must be the SUPPRESSION of crimes, or of those actions which malignantly affect society; and then nothing can be more reasonable than this proceeding. For then, his end must be the good of the whole, not of particulars; but as they come within that view. But the good of the whole being to be procured only by the prevention of crimes; and those, to which there is the greatest propensity,

being