out under this clause: In the Whisky Rebellion of 1794, to enforce the laws; in the war of 1812, to repel invasion; and in the Civil War, to suppress insurrection.

Clause 16.-Organization of the Militia.

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States,1 reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by congress."

1

Thus only can the uniformity so essential to efficiency be secured.

2 This is designed as a proper recognition of the right of each state to have militia companies and to control them, subject only to the necessary limitation mentioned.

The militia of a state consists of one or more regiments, with the proper regimental and company officers appointed by state authority. When these are mustered into the service of the United States and are formed into brigades and divisions, the appointment of the general officers is vested in the president.

Clause 17.-Exclusive Legislation.

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by the cession of particular states, and the acceptance of congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other needful buildings.3

1

1This refers to the territory afterwards selected, and now known as the District of Columbia.

The purpose of this provision is to free the general government from having to depend upon the protection of any state, and to enable it to secure the public buildings and archives from injury and itself from insult.*

Congress governed the District of Columbia directly until 1871, when for three years the experiment was tried of governing it as a territory. The territorial government in that time ran in debt over $20,000,000 for "public improvements," and congress abolished it. The supervision of the district is now in the hands of three commissioners, appointed by the president, but controlled by congressional legislation.

The propriety of the general government having exclusive authority over such places is too obvious to need comment. Crimes committed there are tried in the United States District Courts, but according to the laws of the state or territory.

The state in making the cession usually reserves the right to serve civil and criminal writs upon persons found within the ceded territory, in order that such places may not become asylums for fugitives from justice.

Clause 18.-Implied Powers.

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.

This clause does not grant any new power. "It is merely a declaration, to remove all uncertainty, that

*The Continental Congress, while the capital was at Philadelphia, had to adjourn to Princeton to escape the violence of some dissatisfied soldiers. See Fiske's Critical Period of American History, page 112.

every power is to be so interpreted, as to include suitable means to carry it into execution."*

It will be noticed that the powers of congress are enumerated, not defined, in the constitution; and the above clause has given rise to the doctrine of "implied powers," the basis of many political controversies.

Following are samples of "implied powers:"

By clause 2, congress has power "to borrow money on the credit of the United States." Implied in this, is the power to issue securities or evidences of debt, such as treasury notes. "To increase the credit of the United States, congress may make such evidences of debt a legal tender for debts, public and private."†

Congress has power (clause 11) "to declare war." By implication it has power to prosecute the war "by all the legitimate methods known to international law." To that end, it may confiscate the property of public enemies, foreign or domestic; it may confiscate, therefore, their slaves. (See Emancipation Proclamation, page 362. For a hint of what congress might do, see Among the Lawmakers, p. 296.)

Pertinent Questions.

1. In what two ways may the first part of the first clause be interpreted? In what ways does the government levy taxes? How much of the money paid to the local treasurer goes to the United States? Have you ever paid a U. S. tax? Did you ever buy a pound of nails? Do you remember the "stamps" that used to be on match boxes? How came they there? Was that a direct or an indirect tax? A man who pays for a glass of beer or whisky pays a U. S. tax. How? Every time a person buys a cigar he pays a U. S. tax. If there be a cigar factory within reach, talk with the proprietor about this matter. Look at a cigar box and a beer keg to find some evidence of the tax paid. Name some things which were taxed a few years ago but are not now. What is a custom house? A port of entry? What are they for? Name the port of entry nearest to you. What is the present income of the United States from

*Story. † Lalor's Cylopedia of Political Science.

all kinds of taxation? What is done with the money? Look up the derivation of the word tariff.

2. How does the government "borrow ?" Does the government owe you any money? If you have a "greenback," read its face. If the government is unable or unwilling to pay a creditor, what can he do? What is the "credit" of the United States? How much does the United States government owe, and in what form is the debt? How came it to be so large? Is the government paying it up? How much has been paid this fiscal year? What rate of interest has the government to pay? What is the current rate for private borrowers? How is it that the government can borrow at so low a rate? What is a "bond-call," and how is it made?

3. Has congress power to prohibit commerce with one or more foreign nations? Has it power to regulate commerce carried on wholly within a state? Can you buy lands from the Indians? Can the state? Has congress imposed a tariff to be paid in going from one state to another? What has requiring the engineer of a steamboat to secure a government license to do with "regulating commerce?" When did congress under this clause prohibit American merchant ships from leaving port? Under what provision of the constitution does congress impose restrictions upon the railroads? Does congress exercise any control over railroads lying wholly within one state? Why?

4. How can an alien become naturalized? Who are citizens of the United States? (See Amend. XIV.) Is a child of American parents, boin during a temporary absence from this country, a citizen or an alien? An alien living in this country has children born here; are they citizens or aliens? A child is born on the ocean, while its parents are on the way here to found a new home and intending to become citizens; what is the status of the child? Are you a citizen? How may female aliens become citizens? Why should they desire to do so? How did citizens of Texas at the time of its admission become citizens of the United States?

What is an insolvent law? Has this state such a law? Can this state pass a bankrupt law? Can any state? Why? Is there any United States bankrupt law? Has congress ever passed such a law?

5. What is money? Is a bank bill money? Read one and see whether it pretends to be. What gold coins have you ever seen? What others have you heard of? What silver coins have you ever seen? What others have you heard of? What other coins have you seen or heard of? How are coins made? Where is the United States mint located? Where are the branch mints? How much value does the stamp of the government add to a piece of gold? Is there a dollar's worth of silver in a silver dollar? Why? (See Jevons' Money and the Mechanism of Exchange.)

How are national banks organized? (See appendix.) Under what constitutional provision does congress exercise this power? Are any banks organized under state authority? What is meant by "legal tender?"

Are foreign coins "legal tender" at the rate fixed by congress? For the value of the principal foreign coins, see appendix. Can congress punish counterfeiting of these coins? Is there a standard pound in this state? A standard bushel? 6. Look on the back of a greenback for the law about counterfeiting. Is there any law against passing counterfeits? 7. When was our postoffice department established? Who was placed at the head of it? Who is the postmaster general? What is meant by "presidential offices" in speaking of postoffices? What are the present rates of postage in the United States? How much does it cost to send a letter to England? To Prussia? To Australia? When were postage stamps introduced? Stamped envelopes? Postal cards? In what four ways may money be sent by mail? Explain the workings and advantages of each method. What is the dead letter office? What is meant by the franking privilege? Find the rates of postage in the United States, in 1795, 1815, 1845, 1850, 1860. Does the power to establish post roads, authorize congress to make internal improvements? What is meant by star route?" 8. Is this book copyrighted? Name some book that is not copyrighted. What things besides books are copyrighted? Can a copyright be sold? How is a copyright secured? (See page 318.) How long do copyrights continue in force? How may they be renewed? Must new editions be copyrighted?

What is a patent? How are "letters patent" secured? (See page 320.) How may an inventor secure time to perfect his invention? How can a patent be sold? May a person, not the patentee, make a patented article for his own use? Name ten important patented inventions. What is the purpose of the government in granting patents? Is this always secured? How does the expiration of a patent affect the price of an invention? If a person invents an article which proves helpful to millions of people, is it unfair that he should make a fortune out of it?

9. By what authority does congress organize courts in the territories? Could congress establish more than one Supreme Court? Name the United States District Judge for this state. The United States Attorney. The United States Marshal. If you had a claim against the United States how would you get your money?

10. Who may punish a pirate? Can a pirate claim the protection of the American flag?

11. Has the United States ever formally declared war? May war begin without a formal declaration? Does the president act with congress in declaring war, as in case of a law?

What protection is afforded by letters of marque and reprisal?