allowed its prejudices to become still more contracted, not knowing either how to submit to the order of things or to oppose it with vigour. This miserable policy, in which a government was seen narrowing its views at the same time that those of the public were expanded, is remarkable in all revolutions. It is like trying to describe a large circle in a small circumference, and the consequences are inevitable. A disposition to religious toleration became general; yet the clergy wished to put to death a young man who in a fit of drunkenness had insulted a crucifix; the people appeared inclined to resistance, and a system of alternate concession and restraint was henceforth adopted. No sooner did a spirit of liberty make its appearance than the Lettres de cachet were multiplied. These "Lettres" caused, no doubt, more noise than mischief, but they were, it must be confessed, subversive of every legitimate principle. Whatever is not law, or whatever is contrary to the spirit of just government, is criminal. Who would submit to have a sword suspended by a hair over his head, even were he confident that it would not fall? To see the monarch thus immersed in pleasure; his courtiers corrupt; his ministers weak or mischievous; the people losing their morals; one part of the philosophers assailing the church, another part attacking the state; the nobility, either ignorant or partaking of the vices of the day; the ministers of religion at Paris the disgrace of their order, and those in the country bigoted by prejudice; - such a scene suggested the notion that each party wished to rival the other in their endeavours to demolish a mighty edifice. Ever since the latter half of the reign of Louis XV. religion was on the decline, until at length it disappeared, together with monarchy, in the gulf of the Revolution."

Were the rest of the volume directed like these passages to a sober view of things, or confined to topics within the author's knowlege, it would have afforded an useful as well as an eloquent commentary on historical subjects: but, instead of observing this limitation, M. de C. has chosen to gratify, in almost every chapter, a taste for digression and declamatory discussion that is calculated to lead a writer into the most improbable delineations and suppositions. We shall only farther quote a short passage which begins extremely well, but affords in its close a specimen of the fanciful combinations in which this writer takes such pleasure in indulging.

'What, then, is the principal inference to be drawn from all the resemblances pointed out in this volume? It is that a revolution in the present day has no title to possess the attraction of novelty; an attraction which in France, and in some measure in neighbouring countries, proved one of the most powerful means of its extensive adoption. Almost all that we have considered as novelties in the history of the French Revolution have been acted over and over in those of Greece. Man, feeble in his means and limited in

his

his invention, does little else than repeat the actions of his fore fathers, turning round in a circle from which he finds no outlet. We might even venture to draw up a tabular statement, anticipating the course of events in any nation of given character; putting in one column the degree of knowlege possessed by them; in another, their political character; in a third, the hazards resulting from these combinations, and from the prevalence of such passions as envy, ambition, &c., which we should place in the fourth column,' &c.

The endless aberrations of M. de C. are the more extraordinary, as the plan on which he set out was very clear and consistent; his object (Introduction, p. 3.) being to investigate, 1. The nature of revolutions in former ages; 2. How far these revolutions bear a resemblance to that of France; 3. What were the causes that engendered the French Revolution, and produced its explosion in so sudden a manner. It follows from these various merits and demerits, that, in attempting to form an estimate of the general value of the book, the reader of M. de Chateaubriand will be not a little embarrassed. On the one hand, he will find repeated examples (pp. 33.128.133.191. 230.) of fallacious theories or exaggerated expressions; the author treating, in one of these passages, the voyage round Africa ascribed to Hanno as an event accomplished to an extent much beyond the bounds of probability: in another, taking for granted the fabulous traditions of the early knowlege of the Hindoos: while, in a third, after a ridiculous comparison between the conduct of the French emigrants and that of the Grecian exiles who combated with the Persians, he very coolly computes the number of Persians, killed at the battle of Platea, at two hundred thousand: adding gravely in a note, mon calcul est modéré. On the other hand, the work offers a number of redeeming passages, of which we shall merely mention the observations (p. 159.) on Swisserland and the origin of Swiss liberty; and the concluding sentences of the volume, which afford an example of a very pretty comparison. Scarcely ever do we perceive the reality of things: we see their images falsely reflected through the medium of our wishes; so that we may be said to pass our time like one who should judge of the outward atmosphere through the medium of a transparency, exhibiting the serenity of a mild latitude in the midst of the clouds and storms of the north. In multiplying historical comparisons, and attempting so many parallels of character, repetitions must unavoidably occur. Still the essay contains much pleasant observation, and its defects escape the notice of the reader until subjected to the test of attentive examination. M. de C. has been censured in France as an interested writer, and as one who

allowed

allowed his pen to be guided by the expectation of political favours: but, if an estimate be formed either from the passages extracted above or from the general tenour of the whole, he will here be found equally severe on the clergy and noblesse, the reputed pillars of the throne, and on the tiers état, the grand engine of the Revolution.-Though the present publication is not of inconsiderable length, a notice given by the author indicates that the subjects discussed in it are likely to call forth several more treatises of equal magnitude. Not contented with apprizing us of a similar work on the revolutions of Rome, he enumerates not fewer than twelve of those formidable changes in history, antient or modern, all of which he seems to consider as intitled to a minute investigation, and to an elaborate parallel with each other.

ART. VI. Chemical Essays, principally relating to the Arts and Manufactures of the British Dominions. By Samuel Parkes, F.L.S. Author of the Chemical Catechism, &c. 5 Vols. 12mo. 21. 28. Boards. Baldwin and Co. 1815.

WHE

HEN the author of these essays came under our notice as the writer of a Chemical Catechism*, we spoke of him as having produced a work of some merit, although not without considerable defects; and we understand that it has received material improvement in the later editions through which it has passed. He is also extensively concerned in the management of various chemical manufactures, and is supposed to possess an union of practical and scientific knowlege on the subject which is not very frequently to be found. The volumes now before us consist of a number of detached essays, on subjects of which some are immediately connected with the art, and others rather with the principles of the science: but they are all on topics of an interesting nature. Mr. P. expatiates, in the preface, on the great importance of chemical science to a country like England, which depends on the progress and improvement of its manufactures for its welfare, if not for its political existence; and he very aptly illustrates the intimate and necessary connection which subsists between the perfection of many of the manufacturing processes, and the knowlege of chemistry. This, however, is still more clearly pointed out, in the first essay; the direct object of which is to shew the utility of chemistry to the arts and manufactures;' a position which is illustrated by numerous examples. The steam-engine must always stand foremost

* See Rev. Vol. liii. N. S. p. 64.

оп

on such occasions, as the most remarkable instance of a philosophical principle immediately applied to a practical purpose; while the processes of dying, of making glass, of tanning, of fermenting and distilling, of refining sugar, and of smelting metal, although many of them are performed by rude nations who are totally unacquainted with scientific knowlege of any description, have all received very valuable improvements, and are perhaps susceptible of being farther advanced, by applying to them the modern discoveries.

The next two essays are on Temperature; and, though not strictly scientific, they contain a considerable portion of valuable and some curious information. Mr. Parkes divides the subject into the two heads of Natural and Artificial Temperature; observing that the variety of climate in the different regions of the earth, the effects of caloric on animal and vegetable life, and the nature of its agency on combustible substances, will arrange themselves under the first division of the subject; while that on Artificial Temperature will contain a brief detail of a variety of expedients for procuring fire, for modifying the effects of heat and cold, for economizing fuel, and for improving certain operations which have a considerable influence on the success of many of the manufactories of the country.' He first notices the opinion that many parts of the earth, particularly about the central and northern regions of Europe, are less cold than they were in the age of Augustus; an alteration which, if it exists, must depend on the improvement in the agriculture of those countries, the removal of superabundant quantities of wood, and the draining of marshes. The effects of different temperatures on the freezing of water, the manner in which heat is propagated through fluids, and Crawford's doctrine of the different capacities of bodies, with its application to respiration and animal temperature, next pass under review; though, as the reader may suppose, in rather a cursory manner. The modern theory of combustion is then more minutely detailed, and is thus described:

If

• Some bodies are combustible, others are incombustible. a body which is formed of combustible materials be heated to a certain degree in atmospheric air, combustion will commence, and its affinity for oxygen will be so great that it will abstract it from the atmosphere. Should the combustible substance be placed in favourable circumstances, with the free access of atmospheric air, this perpetual accession of oxygen will keep up the combustion till the whole of the combustible matter becomes saturated with oxygen, when it is said to be consumed.

The heat, in this process, generally arises from the decomposition of the oxygen gas of the atmosphere, but the light and

the

the flame in most cases proceed from the combustible body itself. In fact, combustion appears to be merely a chemical process; a double decomposition, in which not only two compound bodies are separated into their original elements, but two new compounds are always formed. For while the light, which is extricated from the burning substance, unites with the caloric of the oxygen gas, and forms what is called fire, the oxygen itself combines with the base of the combustible, and forms a new incombustible substance. This incombustible matter will be either water, an acid, or an oxide; or a compound of two or more of these substances.'

The subsequent essay, in which the author treats of the means of increasing and diminishing temperature, and economizing fuel, contains more new matter than the first, or at least matter which has not so much the appearance of being common-place. The effects of convex lenses, of electricity, especially that modification of it called Galvanism, of explosive compounds, of mechanical compression, percussion, and the decomposition of water, as in the spontaneous combustion of hay, or other damp vegetable substances, are enumerated among the modes of producing heat, which are either adopted for various purposes or are such as occasionally fall under our notice. Then are related the means of diminishing or modifying heat, of which the chief is evaporation, the direct application of ice or snow, (a custom which is attempted to be traced up to the time of Solomon,) and the solution of salts. The next subject is the means of guarding against and modifying the effects of cold.' The chief of these means is obviously the production of artificial heat by the burning of fuel: on which point the author professes to do little more than copy from Count Rumford, or at least to apply the principles which that philosopher has established. This is, however, the most valuable part of the essay; not that it contains much that is absolutely novel, but because many of the observations are evidently the result of experience, and such as, although obvious when pointed out, might probably not have suggested themselves to any person who had not been engaged in the practical details of the manufacturing processes. We particularly refer to the directions for the construction of fire-places, which are minute, and appear to be judicious; the position of boilers; the management of chimneys; and the means of regulating the rate of combustion and the extrication of heat.

Volume II. contains five essays, on Specific Gravity, on Calico-printing, on Barytes, on Carbon, and on Sulphuric Acid. Of these the essay on calico-printing is the most important; and it opens with an historical sketch of the progress REV. SEPT. 1816. F

of