rose, from being a private soldier, to the first employments in the empire. The emperor Constans had a great esteem for him, and, in a mutiny among the troops, delivered him from the fury of the soldiers, by covering him with his robe. Magnentius murdered his benefactor in 350, and assumed the title of emperor; but Constantius II. avenged the death of his brother, and, after a bloody battle, Magnentius was defeated; whereupon he killed himself, 353.

MAGNUS, Albertus. (See ALBERTUS MAGNUS.)

MAHMOUD, ma'-mood, the founder of the
Gasnevide dynasty, succeeded to the sovereignty
of Khorassan and Bokhara in 997. He extended
his territories by conquest, and formed a vast
kingdom, extending from the banks of the
Ganges to the Caspian Sea. He held his court
at Balkh and Ghisni, and was the first eastern
potentate who took the title of sultan (emperor)
instead of emir (commander), which had been
previously borne by his predecessors. D. 1030.
MAHMOUD I., sometimes called Mahomet V.,
sultan of the Ottoman Turks, was son of Mus-
tapha II., and ascended the throne at Constan-
He interfered but little in
tinople in 1730.
the government of his kingdom, choosing rather
to live a life of luxury, while the cares of state
devolved upon his ministers. B. 1696; D. 1754.
MAHMOUD II., sultan of Turkey, was placed
upon the throne by Mustapha Bairaktar, chief
of the janissaries, in 1808. Under his reign,
despite his greatest exertions, the decadence of
In 1812, Bes-
Turkey was greatly accelerated.
sarabia was ceded to Russia by the peace of
Bucharest. Between the years 1812 and 1817,
Servia, Moldavia, and Wallachia were evacuated,
and the Ionian islands proclaimed their inde-
pendence. In 1820, Greece broke out into in-
surrection, and, after a struggle of eight years,
threw off the Turkish yoke. A fresh war next
broke out between Turkey and Russia, and the
latter power was only prevented from taking
possession of Constantinople by the interven-
tion of the European powers, which brought
about the peace of Adrianople, in 1829. During
this time, Ali, pacha of Janina, had defied the
sultan, and Mehemet Ali, pacha of Egypt, had
rendered himself independent. The extermina-
tion of the janissaries in 1826, and the intro-
duction of some details of civilization, weakened
the Turkish power, but did not benefit Mah-
moud. In 1833 he was thrice defeated by the
Egyptians, and the treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi
left him at the mercy of Russia. He was about
to engage in a new war with Mehemet Ali, when
his death took place. B. 1785; D. 1839.-He
was succeeded by his eldest son, Abdul-Mejid.
(See ABDUL-MEJID.)

MAHOMET. (See MOHAMMED.)
MAHOMET I., mai'-ho-met, emperor of the
Turks, was the son of Bajazet I., and succeeded
his brother Mousa in 1413. He re-established
the glory of the Ottoman empire, which had
been ravaged by Tamerlane, and fixed the seat
of government at Adrianople, where he died in
1421, aged 47.

MAHOMET II. Succeeded his father, Amurath
II., in 1451. He made many conquests, and
was the first who assumed the title of Grand
Seignior. After a long and victorious career, he
died as he was about to lead an attack against
the Knights of St. John, at Rhodes. Mahomet
is said to have been a freethinker, and to have
ridiculed throughout the religion in which he

was brought up. His letters, translated into
MAHOMET III. succeeded his father, Amu-
Latin, were published in 1520. B. 1429; D. 1481.
rath III., in 1595. He commenced his reign by
strangling nineteen of his brothers, and drown-
ing ten of his father's wives. He entered Hun-
gary, took Agram by capitulation, and then
massacred the whole garrison. The archduke
obtained a complete victory, when Mahomet,
Maximilian marched against him, and nearly
who had made a false retreat, suddenly returned
to the charge, and routed the imperialists. He
was afterwards less successful, and obliged to
sue for peace to the Christian princes whose
states he had ravaged. D. 1603.

MAHOMET IV. became emperor in 1819, after
the tragical death of his father, Ibrahim I. The
Turks were at this time engaged in a war with
the Venetians, and made themselves masters of
Mahomet marched in person against
the isle of Candia in 1669, after losing 100,000
men.
Poland, and, having taken several places, made
peace with that country, on condition of an
annual tribute being paid to him. John Sobieski,
irritated at this treaty, raised an army, and the
year following defeated the Turks near Choczim.
He also obtained a number of other advantages
to Poland, in 1676. In 1683 the Turks laid siege
over them, and a peace was concluded, favourable
to Vienna, on which Sobieski marched to its
relief, and routed the besiegers. The year fol-
lowing, a league was entered into against the
Tarks, between the emperor, the king of Poland,
and the Venetians. The janissaries, attributing
their misfortunes to the indolence of the sultan,
deposed him in 1687, and gave the sceptre to his
brother Solyman III., who sent him to the same
prison whence he had himself been taken.
Mahomet died there, 1691.

MAHOMET V. (See MAHMOUD I.)

MAI, Cardinal Angelo, ma'-e, an eminent Italian scholar, who, after having lived obscurely in a Jesuit convent, was promoted to the charge of the Ambrosian Library at Milan in 1813. In 1819 he was called to Rome, where his researches in the Vatican library brought to light many ancient works and fragments till then lost to the world. The most important of these were "The Republic" of Cicero, discovered in 1822, nearly in a perfect condition, and the letters of Fronto, the tutor of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. His valuable labours were rewarded with high distinction in the Church. He was created a cardinal in 1838, and subsequently became chief librarian of the Vatican, which office he held till his death. B. at Bergamo, 1782; D. 1854.

MAILLET, Benedict de, mail-lai, a whimsical but ingenious French writer, who successively became consul at Egypt and Leghorn. His principal work, "Telliamed" (his name read backwards), contains a singular system of cosmogony, in which he maintains that all the land of the globe was originally covered with water, and that every species of animal, man included, MAIMBOURG, Louis, maim'-boorg, a celebrated owes its origin to the sea. B. 1656; D. 1738. French ecclesiastical historian, who entered into the society of Jesuits; but having written a treatise in defence of the rights of the Gallican church against the see of Kome, was expelled the order. Louis XIV., however, made him amends by giving him a pension. His chief works are, "A History of Arianism," "A His tory of Iconoclasts," "A History of the Cru

Maimonides

sades," and "Histories of Calvinism and Lutheranism." B. 1610; D. 1656.

MAIMONIDES, Moses, mai-mon'-i-dees, or Moses Ben MAIMON, a celebrated Jewish rabbi. He is commonly called Moses Egyptus, because he lived in that count y as physician to the sultan. He was versed in several languages and sciences, but particularly mathematics and medicine. He was also learned in theology, and the Jews account him as second only to Moses the legislator. He wrote a "Commentary upon the Old Testament," a "Digest of the Hebrew Laws," and other valuable works. B. at Cordova, Spain, about 1133; D. 1204.

Maitland

covered the strait which bears his name, in South America. After visiting New Guinea, he sailed to Batavia, where he was made prischer, and the only vessel he had left was contiscated, under the pretence of his having infringed on the rights of the Dutch East India Company. D. on his passage to Europe, in 1616.

MAITLAND, Sir Richard, maif-land, an early Scottish poet, distinguished also as a lawyer and a statesman, held the office of a lord of session, and in that capacity took the title of Lord Lethington, from his estate. He was anpointed keeper of the privy scal in the reign ( Queen Mary; which office, as well as his ja MAINTENON, Frances d'Aubigné, Marchioness cial seat, he resigned a few years after, and cal de, main-te-naung, the mistress, and afterwards in 1536. B. 1496. He wrote several porns, wife, of Louis XIV. In 1651 she married the some of which are in Allan Ramsay's Evercelebrated comic poet Scarron, who taught her green."-William Maitland of Lethington, the the Latin, Spanish, and Italian languages. In eldest son of Sir Richard, was secretary of stata 1660 she became a widow in very narrow cir- to Mary Queen of Scots.-John Maitland, cumstances; but the queen allowed her a pen- second son of Sir Richard, succeeded bis father sion, with which she retired to a convent at in the office of lord privy seal, and lost it Paris. The death of her patron deprived her of through his attachment to the interests of the her pension, and reduced her to great difficul- queen. He was afterwards secretary to Janaes ties; but, by means of her old friend Madame VI., and at length chancellor of Scotland. In de Montespan, the king's mistress, she obtained 1589 he attended the king on his voyaze to the renewal of her pension. By the command Norway, where his bride, the Princess of Denof his majesty she undertook the education of mark, was detained by contrary winds. The the children he had by Madame de Montespan, marriage was immediately consummated, zi which trust she discharged with great fidelity. they returned with the queen to Copenhagen, In this situation she acquired an ascendancy where they spent the ensuing winter. In 1590 over the mind of the king, who, in 1674, pur- Maitland was created Lord Maitland of Thur chased for her the estate of Maintenon, which stane. Towards the end of the year 1592, the name she assumed. In 1685 the king made her chancellor incurred the queen's displeasure for his wife; but the marriage was never publicly refusing to relinquish his lordship of Muss avowed. On the death of Louis, she retired to burgh, which she claimed as being a part of that St. Cyr, an institution she had herself founded of Dunfermline. He absented himself for some for poor girls of good family. B. 1635; D. 1719. time from court, but was at length restored to MAINZER, Joseph, main'-zair, a distinguished favour. Besides his Scottish poetry in the Maitmusician, and introducer of the system of teach-land collection, he wrote several Latin epigra 18, ing that is known by his name, began life as apprentice to mining engineering in the coalfield of Dutweiler and Sultzbach, but was obliged to quit this pursuit from ill-health. He then devoted himself to the study of music, for which he had always had a predilection, and after studying under various masters, and in different parts of the world, returned to Trèves, his native place, and turned his attention to the development of his new system of teaching music, which he had long before conceived, and which soon began to attract attention in Germany. In 1830, he went to Paris, then in all the excitement of the second revolution, where he soon found a field for his plan of teaching and popularizing music; but the police became jealous of his popularity, and invited him to close his school, an invitation which he could not safely decline. During his residence in Paris, Mainzer was a constant contributor to the "Revue des Deux Mondes," the "Revue du Nord," "La Balance," published by Böerne, and for six years was the rédacteur of the musical department of the "National." In 1844 he went to England, where his scheme of teaching singing to the masses was well received. Soon afterwards he established himself in Scotland; and in 1848 definitively took up his abode in Manchester, where he laboured with great assiduity and success till his death. He left a great number of works in almost every style of composition. B. 1801; D. 1851.

&c., to be found in the "Delicia Poetaran Scotorum." D. 1595.

MAITLAND, John. (See LAUDERDALE, Duke of) MAITLAND, William, a native of Brechin, For farshire, was originally a travelling hair-mer chant, but turning his attention to literature, gained a competency, and was elected a member of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies. wrote a "History of Edinburgh," a "History of London," and "The History and Antiquities of Scotland." B. about 1693; D. 1757.

He

MAITLAND, Rear-Admiral Sir Frederick Lewis, the third son of a rear-admiral, commenced his naval career at a very early age. Passing over the earlier part of his career, in the course of which he saw much service, and greatly disting guished himself, we find Captain Maitland commanding the armed launches employei ta cover the landing of Sir Ralph Abercromby's army in Egypt in 1801, for which he received the thanks of the naval and military commanderein-chief. His subsequent successes while crusing in the Mediterranean as captain of the Loire, of 46 guns, brought him into general netice, and in 1813 he was appointed to the command of the Goliath, and subsequently to the Brie rophon, of 74 guns, in which ship he was sent to watch the French coast off Rochefort. Whic there, Napoleon, after the events which followed the battle of Waterloo, resolved to throw himself on the generosity of "the most powerfal, the most constant, and the most generous of his MAIRE, James LE, le(r)-mair', a Dutch navi- enemies;" and accordingly surrendered uneord gator, who sailed from the Texel in 1615, with tionally to Captain Maitland on the 15th Ju two vessels. In the following year he dis-1815. The Bellerophon, with the illustris

Malatesta

captive on board, proceeded to Plymouth, off which port he was removed to the Northumberland on the 7th of August, having previously offered to present Captain Maitland with his portrait set with diamonds, of the value of 3000 guineas, which offer was politely declined. Maitland was subsequently appointed to the command of the Vengeur, of 74 guns; afterwards attained to the rank of rear-admiral; and was appointed commander-in-chief in the East Indies, where he died, after several years' service, Dec. 30, 1839.

MALATESTA, MALATESTI, Lords of Rimini, mal-a-tais'-ta, a great Italian family during the middle ages, and the head of the Guelph party at Rimini. The tragedy which occurred in the household of one of this family forms one of the finest episodes in Dante's "Inferno." After being despoiled of their possessions by Pope Clement VIII, in 1529, the family retired to Venice, and their names were afterwards recorded in the annals of that republic.

Malibran de Beriot

terior. Under his administration, prisons wero
visited, and numerous abuses removed, but the
year following he resigned. At the beginning
of the Revolution he conceived a hope that it
would have been productive of good, but the
illusion soon vanished. He voluntarily pleaded
the cause of the unfortunate Louis XVI., and
defended him with all the ardour of conscious
rectitude. This excellent man was condemned
to death, with his daughter and grand-daughter,
by the revolutionary tribunal in 1791. He wrote
some treatises on natural history and agricul-
ture, and a work entitled "Memoire sur la
Liberté de la Presse."
B. 1721.

MALIBRAN DE BERIOT, Maria Felicita, mal'-i-bră dai bai'-re-o, a celebrated vocal per former, was the eldest daughter of Manuel Garcia, a well-known tenor singer of the Italian Opera. She was taken to London by her parents when eight years old, devoted her unceasing attention to the study of music, and made her début in 1925, when only sixteen years of age, as prima donna at the opera. In the succeeding year she accompanied her father to America, where her union with M. Malibran, an elderly French merchant at New York, took place. Shortly after their marriage her husband failed, and was thrown into prison; and Madame Malibran, believing she had been deceived, separated from him, and returned to Europe. Intense study, the love of her art, and the motives she had for exertion, had already made her a performer of unrivalled excellence. The Parisian audiences were perfectly enraptured, and every night she concluded her performance amidst a thunder of applause and a shower of flowers. From Paris she went to London, where she shone with increased lustre, through the season of 1829, in the characters of Rosina, Tancredi, Desdemona, Semiramide, Zerlina, and Ninetta. Her reputation now extended over the whole of Europe; and after travelling great distances to fulfil different engagements, and receiving vast sums for her performances, she revisited England in 1835, and made her first appearance at Covent Garden, in an English version of "La Somnambula," on the 18th of May, and at once entranced her audiences with her marvellous powers of vocalization; not only in the theatre, but also at numerous royal and noble entertainments to which she was invited, and at the concerts of professors. After almost incredible exertions in the evening, she often rose by five o'clock in the morning, and practised for several hours those wonderful passages by which audiences were again to be electrified. In March, 1836, Madame Malibran, while in Paris, having been freed, by the French courts, from her union with Monsieur Malibran, was married to Monsieur de Beriot, a Belgian, whoso ability as a violinist had placed him in the highest rank of his profession. In May follow. ing, she resumed her performances at Drury Lane Theatre; and, at the close of the season, accompanied her husband to Brussels, and other cities on the Continent. But the close of her career was at hand. Having been engaged MALESHERBES, Chrétien Guillaume Lamoig- for the Manchester grand musical festival, sho non, mala-hairb, an eminent French lawyer, arrived in that town on the 11th of September, whose talents procured him the place of pre- and, though indisposed, commenced her arduous sident of the Court of Aids in 1750, which post task the next day. Her illness rapidly increased; he held with great reputation for upwards of and, though she endeavoured to conceal it, by twenty years, and then retired to his paternal sustaining her part with the apparent vigour of estate. In 1775 he was recalled from his re- health and unusual energy, she sank under the treat, and made minister of state for the in-effort. On Wednesday, the 14th, her last notes

MALCOLM, mal-kom, the name of four kings of Scotland, who reigned between the 10th and 12th centuries. The most celebrated was Malcolm III., son of that Duncan immortalized in Shakspeare's "Macbeth." After the murder of his father, he took refuge in England; but, upon the fall of Macbeth, in 1057, he recovered possession of the Scottish crown, He afterwards engaged in a war with William Rufus, and was slain fighting against the English, 1093. MALCOLM, James Peiler, an artist and an tiquary, was a native of America, studied painting in England, and eventually became an engraver. He was the author of "Londinium Redivivum," "Anecdotes of the Manners and Customs of London," "First Impressions," &c. D. 1915. MALCOLM, Sir John, a celebrated British officer, and author of the "History of Persia," went to India at the age of thirteen, and, after serving with distinction in both political and military capacities, was appointed, in 19 7, minister plenipotentiary to Persia. On his return to England, in 1812, he was knighted, and three years afterwards published his "History of Persia," a most valuable contribution to literature, derived from native sources. He returned to India in 1817, and acted as second in command in the campaigns against the Mahrattas and Pindarees. On the conclusion of this war, he was nominated to the civil and military command of Central India, which, during his administration, became tranquillized and prosperous. He returned to England in 1521, but again went out to the East in 1827, as governor of Bombay. He finally left India in 1830, and soon afterwards entered Parliament. He was the author of a "Life of Lord Clive," "Political History of India," and a "Memoir on Central India." B. in Scotland, 1769; D. 1833. MALEBRANCHE, Nicholas, mal-branzh, one of the most illustrious disciples of Des Cartes, whose philosophy he devoted his life to propagate and explain. His works were numerous, and of the highest excellence. B. at Paris, 1633; D. 1715.