were under the necessity either of submitting to the enemy, or of making good their retreat.

The latter they both chose and accomplished. The Greeks were led by Clearchus on this expedition, but he having trusted himself among the Persians, was basely delivered up to the king, by whose order he was beheaded. In this exigency they elected Xenophon, a young Athenian, as their commander, under whom they were to effect their retreat.

They observed the greatest order and discipline; and though in the inidst of vindictive enemies, and with deserts, hills, mountains, rivers, and even the sea before them, they arrived with an inconsi derable loss, at the banks of the Euxine. Xenophon himself has written an admirable account of this retreat.

The Greek cities of Asia having taken a part in this enterprise of the Greeks, Sparta was engaged to defend her countrymen, and consequently was involved in a war with Persia. The disunion of the Grecian states, and especially the hostility of Athens against Sparta, rendered the war disastrous to the Spartans; who, to avoid destruction, sued for peace, and obtained it, by the sacrifice of all her Asiatic colonies, 387 years B. C.

9. Among the Grecian states, Thebes became particularly distinguished during the latter part of the present period. It had been comparatively obscure before. The Thebans contending among themselves, the Spartans interfered in the contention, and seized on the Theban fortress.

This mea

sure brought on a war between Sparta and Thebes.

Athens at first united with Thebes, but at length Thebes stood alone against Sparta and the league of Greece. Pelopidas and Epaminondas were the Theban leaders, who greatly distinguished themselves in this war. The celebrated battles of Leuctra and Mantinea were gained by the Thebans over their enemies, the one 371 years B. C., and the other S years afterwards. In the latter engagement, the great Epaminondas was slain.

The ravages of this contention among the Grecian states, may be said to have paved the way for their entire subjugation by a foreign power.

The fortress at Thebes, which the Spartans had seized, was kept by the latter during four years, but the angry and deceived Thebans took their revenge. A party of them, headed by Pelopidas, putting on women's clothes over their armour, entered among the Lacedæmonians, at a feast given to them, and cut their principal officers to pieces.

Archias, the chief Spartan, had that very day received a letter from Athens to inform him of the whole plot, but he had very improperly thrown aside the letter without looking into it, saying, "business tomorrow." He was the first man killed, and thus lost his life for a

neglect of his duty, in suffering the pleasure he enjoyed in the coinpany of his friends, to make him forget the interests of his country. Epaminondas, the friend of Pelopidas, who had acted with the latter, was, upon the expulsion of the Spartans from the citadel, called from a quiet and private life to become the general of the Theban army. He was as much celebrated for his wisdom and virtue, as for his bravery. Of all the excellencies of his character, he gained the most respect for his strict regard to truth, as he was never known to be guilty of a falsehood. In the battle of Leuctra, the Theban army was much smaller than that of Sparta; but the skill of their general, in disposing the force to the best advantage, and the valour of the soldiers and officers, more than made up for the difference in numbers. Besides, the Thebans were fighting for their liberty; the Spartans only for conquest. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that the Thebans prevailed.

Pelopidas shared the danger and the glory of his friend; yet when these valiant generals returned to Thebes, they were both called before the tribunal of justice for the crime of keeping their command too long. Both were acquitted; yet the enemies of Epaminondas caused him to be elected a city scavenger, on purpose to disgrace and vex him. But what might have been a disgrace to a mean person, was no disgrace to this noble Theban. He accepted the office, saying, “If the office will not give me honour, I will give honour to the office."

Epaminondas fell in the battle of Mantinea, and in the moment of victory. A javelin had pierced his bosom, and becoming disabled, a fierce contest arose between his foes and friends for the possession of his person. The Thebans at length bore him from the field. Epaminondas, though in extreme agony from his wound, thought only of his country; and when informed that the Thebans had conquered, he said, "then all is well."

He drew the weapon from his bosom, as no one around him had the fortitude to do it, it being understood, from the nature of the wound, he would expire as soon as it was extricated. The glory of Thebes rose with this man, and with him it expired.

ROMANS.

10. In the history of ROME, during this period, we may observe an additional change in its constitution of government. It became, in effect, a democracy 471 years B. C. The supreme authority passed from the higher order, into the hands of the people. The popular character of the government had been theoretically established before, but it be came now practically democratic.

§ This change was completed by Volero, a Roman tribune, who obtained a law for the election of magistrates, in the comitia held by the tribes. Before this time, the comitia, by centuries and by curiæ, could not be called but in virtue of a decree of the senate, after consulting the auspices, and in those comitia the tribunes had been hitherto elected. In the comitia held by tribes these restraints were unknown

PUBLIC LIBRART

ASTOR, LENOX AND TILDEN FOUNDATIONS.

11. Soon afterwards, (456 B. C.) upon the invasion of the Equi and Volsci, the Romans had recourse to the despotic measure of choosing a dictator. Quinctius Cincinnatus was appointed. He was called from the plough to this office. After having rescued a Roman army from destruction, defeated a powerful enemy, and rendered other signal services to his country, he hastened to resign his power at the end of 16 days, though he might have held it 6 months, the term for which dictators were appointed.

§ Cincinnatus was fixed upon as the wisest and bravest man belonging to the commonwealth. He cultivated a small farm of four acres with his own hands. The deputies of the senate found him following his plough in one of his little fields. They begged him to put on his gown, and hear the message from the senate.

Cincinnatus anxiously asked, "if all was well ?" and then desired his wife Racilia to fetch his gown from their cottage. After wiping off the dust and dirt with which he was covered, he put on his robe and went to the deputies. They saluted him dictator, and bid him hasten to the city, which was in the greatest peril.

A handsome barge had been sent to carry him over the river, for his farm lay on the opposite side of the Tiber. His three sons, with his friends, and several of the senators, were ready to receive him when he landed at Rome, and to carry him in a pompous procession to the house prepared for him.

The very next morning he began to fortify the city, and marshal the soldiers for battle; and he very soon gained a great victory, and made the officers of the enemy pass under the yoke. His administration was entirely satisfactory to all parties, though the tinies were extremely turbulent. He most probably saved Rome from destruction, by his wisdom and valour.

He was chosen dictator on another emergency, many years afterwards, in his 80th year, and then also acted with vigour and wisdom. 12. In 451 years B. C. ten persons who were called the Decemviri, were elected to frame a code of laws, and were invested with absolute power for one year, during which all other magistrates were suspended. They afterwards caused their laws to be engraven on 12 tables, and placed in the most conspicuous part of the city.

These laws were long preserved and acted upon, and are to this day respected in some parts of Europe. They however manifested the stern spirit of the people, and like those of Draco, might be said to be written in blood. Nine crimes*

* Parricide was very properly included as one of those crimes. But to the honour of the Romans it should be observed, that this crime was not known to be committed during more than 500 years from the building of the city. L. Ostius was the first parricide.