his reign by strangling his nineteen brothers, and drowning ten of his father's wives. He finally put to death his eldest son, a prince of estimable qualities, on an unfounded suspicion of ambitious views.

ITALIAN STATES.

2. We shall pursue the history of Italy, by giving an ac count of only two or three of the States of which it was composed. The events in the Italian history are not politically important at this era. It is chiefly in reference to the influence of Florence on the literature of the times, and the ecclesiastical influence of the Papal dominions, that these portions of Italy will be brought more particularly into view. Florence, under the Medici, enjoyed a high degree of splendour, during this period. It was an era, in the cultivation of the sciences and elegant arts. The family of the Medici held sway in this country from the year 1428 to 1569, when Cosmo de Medici the Great was entitled Grand Duke of Tuscany. Under the title of the Republic of Florence, which they governed, were included not only Tuscany, of which Florence is the capital, but Modena, Mantua, and one or two other states.

No

§ Cosmo de Medici died in 1464, who, though the private subject of a republic, had more riches than any king in Europe, and laid out more money in works of taste, learning, and charity, than all the kings, princes, and states, of that or the subsequent age, the individuals of his own family excepted. His religious foundations were unrivalled. His private buildings were equally sumptuous. palace in Europe at that time exceeded his in Florence. He had besides many others. With all this public magnificence and expenditure, he was in his private conversation, humble and unassuming; and in his person plain and modest. He was not celebrated for learning, though he was the greatest patron of learned men of his age.

Cosmo was succeeded in the government by his son Peter, and he by his sons Lorenzo a Giuliano. The latter was soon murdered, and Lorenzo died aged no more than fifty-four years, illustrious like his predecessors, in every public and private virtue.

The tranquillity of the republic was much disturbed by wars with the Venetians and Genoese, for many years. In the course of these commotions, Florence assumed the popular government, but it was quickly reversed by the emperor Charles V., who, laying siege to the city, forced it to capitulate, and restored the family of the Medici.

Cosmo, the second of that name, now (1537) succeeded to the ducal crown, which he wore with honour, during thirty-eight years. The encouragement he gave to the practice and study of all the fine arts,

proves him to have been one of the greatest patrons of human geni. us, since the days of Augustus. The names of his sons were John and Garcia. The latter was of a furious, vindictive disposition, and quarrelling one day with his brother, stabbed him to the heart with a dagger. The father charged him with the murder, but the youth denying it, was introduced into the room where the body lay, which is said to have bled, (doubtless by chance,) at his approach. He then threw himself at his father's feet, and confessed his guilt. The father, who had resolved on the part he was to act, solemnly desired his son to prepare for death, adding, that he ought to think himself happy in losing a life he was unworthy to enjoy, by the hands of him who gave it. He then unsheathed the dagger with which the cardinal had been murdered, and plunged it into the bosom of his

son.

3. That part of Italy which constitutes the dominions of his holiness, became the scene of much crime and contention during this period. Both the temporal and spiritual pow er of the popes, was now at its height. In 1498, the papacy was enjoyed by Alexander VI., a monster of wickedness. Charles VIII., of France, had resolved on an expedition into Italy. The pope and the duke of Milan, who encouraged him in it, immediately betrayed him, and joined the interest of the king of Naples, who was the object of attack on the part of Charles. The latter, however, now first besieged the pope in Rome, and forced him to submission, but at length devoutly kissed his feet. He then marched against Naples, while its timid prince, Alphonso, fled to Sicily, after absolving his subjects from their allegiance. Charles entered Naples in triumph, but lost his new kingdom almost as soon as he had gained it. A league was formed against Charles, between the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Arragon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians; and on his return to France, the troops he had left to guard his conquests, were all driven from Italy.

§ It has been remarked, that from the decisive effect of this confederacy, the sovereigns of Europe derived a useful lesson of policy, and first adopted the idea of preserving a balance of power, by that tacit league, which is understood to be always subsisting, for the prevention of the co-ordinate aggrandizement of any particular state.

History relates with horror, the crimes of Alexander VI., and his son Cæsar Borgia; their murders, robberies, profanations, and incests. They compassed their ends in attaining every object of their ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind. Their death seems to have been a sort of retribution for their crimes, so far as retribution is known on earth.

If an author, Guicciardini, who was a mortal enemy to Alexander, may be believed, Borgia had sent a present of some flasks of poisoned wine to the cardinal of Corneto, in whose garden they proposed to sup, but ordered the servant to give none of it to any person. Alexander soon after coming into the garden, and calling for wine before supper, the servant gave him some from the poisoned flasks, thinking the prohibition could not extend to the Pope, however rare and valuable the wine might be; and Borgia, in the mean time appearing, unconsciously drank of the same wine with his father. They both immediately felt the symptoms of the poison, and Alexander died the next day; but Borgia, having drank his wine much diluted, survived with the loss of his skin and hair. He was afterwards stripped of all his possessions by Pope Julius II., and at last perished in miserable obscurity in Spain.

FRANCE.

Branch of Valois.-Branch of Orleans.

4. Louis XI., began to reign in 1461. He immediately removed all his late father's ministers, proceeded to humble the nobles, and in almost every respect acted the tyrant towards his subjects. Indeed, his character is that of a most deceitful, profligate and cruel prince; he followed too nearly the odious Tiberius in his measures. He left, however, some good regulations for the encouragement of commerce, and for the effectual administration of justice. Notwithstanding the odiousness of his character, he was the first of the French kings, on whom the title of His most Christian Majesty was conferred.

§ His severity occasioned a revolt of several of the first lords of the kingdom. The war which thence arose, they entitled "the war of the public good." His sanguinary disposition is evidenced by the following fact. When he pronounced sentence of death on a certain nobleman, he ordered that his infant children should be placed beneath the scaffold, to be sprinkled by the blood which gushed from the body of their parent. This was an almost incredible instance of refined cruelty, and cold barbarity. Louis died a victim of superstitious terror and remorse of conscience.

5. Charles VIII., surnamed the Affable, at the age of thirteen years, succeeded his father, under the regency of Anne of France, his sister, 1483. His marriage with Anne of Brittany, who was promised to Maximilian of Austria, occasioned a short war with the Germans. His expedition into Italy, and his conquest and subsequent loss of Naples have already been noticed in the Italian history. He reigned about fifteen years.

§ His surname is indicative of his disposition and manners but he led a life of intemperance, and was early cut off by this vice, in his twenty-eighth year. The direct line of Philip of Valois terminated with this monarch, as he left no issue.

6. Louis XII., who was duke of Orleans, and great grandson of Charles V., ascended the throne as the nearest heir, 1498. He was idolized by the French, and obtained and deserved the title of "The Father of his People," by his frugal policy, which eased them from taxes. Yet he was ambitious and imprudent in his military enterprises.

He conquered the Milanese and Genoa, but in prosecuting his claim to Naples, though he obtained some advantage at first, he was unsuccessful in the end. He was duped by his associates, Ferdinand of Spain, and pope Alexander VI. The whole of Naples finally fell into the treacherous hands of Ferdinand; nor did the French king long retain his other conquests in Italy, since they revolted from him on the first opportunity. Louis died suddenly, while preparing to recover, by arms, his lost Italian possessions.

In justifying himself for the pardon of his enemies, Louis made an observation worthy of royalty. "The king of France does not revenge the injuries done to the duke of Orleans." What this prince also said in vindication of his economy, will always be praised. I had rather see my courtiers laugh at my avarice, than my people weep on account of my expenses." It was an unhappiness, however, that he procured, in part, his supplies of money by the sale of offices, which was a very dangerous example.

7. Francis I., count of Angouleme, was called to the throne, 1515, Louis having died without male issue. He was a nephew of the late king, and began his reign at the age of twenty-one.

His real power, and the high opinion which he entertained of his own greatness, led him, in 1519, into competition with the celebrated Charles V., who had just ascended the throne of Spain. Charles, as grandson of the emperor Maximilian, upon the death of the latter, preferred his claim to the empire, but was opposed by Francis. Charles obtained the election, and these princes now became sworn enemies. Their mu tual claims on each other's dominions, caused seas of blood to flow, in wars that lasted more than thirty-eight years.

§ Francis began hostilities by attacking Navarre. He first won and then lost that kingdom. The emperor attacked Picardy, and his troops at the same time wrested Milan out of the hands of the French

Henry VIII., of England, whose friendship had been assiduously courted by both parties, was brought over for a time to the side of Charles.

Just at this juncture, Francis, unfortunately, quarrelled with his best general, the constable of Bourbon, who revenged himself by deserting to the emperor. The constable was invested with command in the army of Charles, and thus greatly added to the superiority which was already apparent in the generals of the latter. The consequences were such as might have been expected. The French were defeated in the battle of Biagrassa. In this engagement, Bayard, the model of knights, perished. At his death, he replied to the marks of pity shown by the duke of Bourbon, with these words: "It is you who ought to be pitied, for fighting against your king, your country, and your oaths."

A temporary success attended the French arms in the capture of the capital of the Milanese; but a sad reverse soon followed in the battle of Pavia. That battle was fought on the 24th of February, 1525, and resembled in its catastrophe, those won by the English at Poictiers and Agincourt. Twenty-five thousand French were slain, and Francis himself made prisoner. He had the mortification to find himself the captive of that very man, the constable, whom he had treated with the greatest hauteur.

Europe being alarmed by the aggrandizement of Charles, a league of several states was formed against him, in favour of the captive monarch. In this league, England was included. The emperor was thus in a manner forced to liberate his prisoner, and he derived little benefit from his good fortune. The severity of the terms respecting his ransom was such, that the states general refused to fulfil them.

On the renewal of the war, Henry VIII. took part with France, but the powerful Charles was not intimidated. Resolving on an invasion of his enemy's country, he inundated Provence with fifty thousand men. But the defensive operations of the French were very successful, and Charles returned sorrowfully into Italy, having lost the one half of his army, cut off by diseases and famine.

In the interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for ten years, Charles passed through France to the Netherlands, and on the part of Francis, was treated with the utmost courtesy and hospitality. He had previously stipulated to grant the French king the investiture of Milan. But though he was every where received with the utmost pomp, and staid seven days in Paris, where he was loaded with every mark of friendship and confidence, he left no authentic testimony of his promise.

The seeds of a renewed contest were thus sown, but though the French were victorious in the battle of Cerizoles, they derived from it little or no advantage. The Imperialists, on the whole, had a decided superiority, and France must have been ruined had not the disorders of Germany forced the emperor to conclude the treaty of Crepi, with Francis, 1544. The latter purchased a peace with Henry VIII., who had once more changed sides, and favoured Charles.