II. RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.

RULE I.-CLEARNESS.

The Words should be so arranged that the Meaning cannot be mistaken.

The Order of the Words Important. Care in the arrangement of the words is especially important in a language like the English, which has so few grammatical terminations. In Latin and Greek, the relation of a word to the other words of the sentence is known at once by its form. But in English we have to indicate these relations by the place in which the word stands.

Example. Were we to say, "The boy the girl sees," there is nothing to show which noun is the subject and which the object of "sees." If we turn the words into Latin, leaving them in the same order that they now have, the meaning is made plain by the termination of the nouns, and is changed at will by a change of the termination. Puer puellam videt means "The boy sees the girl." Puerum puella videt means "The girl sees the boy." What we indicate in Latin by the form of a word, we are obliged in English to indicate by its position. Hence it becomes of great importance in English composition to arrange the words in such a manner that the meaning will be obvious, and cannot be misunderstood. Let us proceed to some particulars.

1. Position of the Adverbs.

Ambiguity is often produced by the improper position of the adverbs. Care should be taken to place the adverb as near as possible to the word which it qualifies, and in such a position, either before or after, that it cannot easily be taken to qualify any other word.

"I only bring forward some things."— Dean Alford. Here, "only" is so placed as to qualify "bring," and raises the query, what else the author proposed to do, or could do, besides bringing these things forward. What he intended to say, was that these things were only a part of what he had at his disposal. The "only" has reference to the "some things," and should be placed as near to those words as possible. If placed immediately before them, the adverb might be con(strued with "forward." I bring the things forward only, not forward and backward, or not up and down. The true order of the words is, "I bring forward some things only. Plenty more might be said." Here the arrangement prevents the possibility of mistake.

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'By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view."—Addison. Here, "only" is so placed as to qualify "mean," and might raise the question, What else does he intend to do? In like manner, if the adverb is placed after "bulk," the question might be asked, If it is the bulk only that you are speaking about, why not speak also of the color, or the weight? The proper order is," By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single

object only, but the largeness of a whole view." In the sentence as thus arranged. "only" carries the mind back to the whole phrase "the greatness of a single object," and thus brings out perfectly the contrast intended by the author, "the largeness of a whole view."

For a correct use of the word, see Ezekiel 14: 16. "Though these three men [Noah, Daniel, and Job] were in it [the land], as I live, saith the Lord God, they shall deliver neither sons nor daughters; they only shall be delivered, but the land shall be desolate."

"Theism can only be opposed to polytheism, or [to] atheism."- Shaftesbury. Did the author mean that theism is capable of nothing else, except being opposed to polytheism, or to atheism? or did he mean that polytheism and atheism are the only things to which it can be opposed? If the latter, the correct order would be: "Theism can be opposed only to polytheism, or [to] atheism." That is, it can be opposed to these things and to nothing else.

"In all abstract cases where we merely speak of numbers, the verb is better singular."-Alford. The question might be asked, what if we write of numbers, as well as speak of them? But the author evidently intended the " merely" to limit "numbers;" and he should have written, "In all cases where we speak of numbers merely, the verb is better singular."

"The Romans understood liberty at least as well as we."-Swift. If, in reading this, we emphasize "liberty," the meaning is, that whatever else we understand better than the Romans did, liberty, at least, was one thing which they understood as well as we do. If, on the other hand, we put the emphasis on "we," the meaning is, liberty was understood by them well, as well at least as by us, probably better. This meaning, which appears to be what the author intended, would have been expressed without ambiguity by arranging the words thus: "The Romans understood liberty, as well, at least, as we."

Blair's Remark.— On this part of the subject, Blair makes the following judicious remark :

"In regard to such adverbs as only, wholly, at least, the fact is that in common discourse, the tone and emphasis we use in pronouncing them generally serves to show their reference, and to make the meaning clear; and hence we acquire a habit of throwing them in loosely in the course of a period. But, in writing, where a man speaks to the eye, and not to the ear, he ought to be more accurate; and so to connect those adverbs with the words which they qualify, as to put his meaning out of doubt, upon the first inspection."

Examples for Practice.

[The student is expected to criticise and correct the following sentences in regard to the position of the adverb.]

1. There are certain miseries in idleness which the idle can only conceive.

2. The good man not only deserves the respect, but the love of his fellow-beings.

3. He is considered generally insane.

4. California not only produces gold in abundance, but quick

silver also.

5. It was by the English, French, Spanish, and Dutch, that the New World was principally colonized.

6. If education refined only the manners, we might do without it; but it also disciplines the mind and improves the heart.

7. The productions mostly consist of corn and cotton.

8. It was by hunting and fishing that the Indians chiefly subsisted.

9. Cook potatoes with their jackets, as I call them, on.

10. They allowed themselves to be drawn off when only wearied of their own excesses.

11. It was the advantage gained precisely by the Saxons which ruined them.

12. One among royal houses alone did not recognize the rights of women.

13. Port-wine is now only favored by two classes.

14. To contemplate abstract subjects only disciplines the mind, rarely if ever interesting it.

15. If the genius of the dramatist only can be brought to recognize the great responsibilities of his calling.

16. I never expect to see Europe.

17. I always expect to spend my money as fast as I get it.

18. The light, sandy soil only favors the fern.

19. He was elected, but only was seen twice in the House.

20. I only distribute them among the lower ranks.

21. I only spoke to him. I did not speak to any one else.

22. The French nearly lost five thousand men.

23. He merely accompanied me to the brook. I was obliged to go the rest of the way by myself.

24. I did not talk to him, but to you.

25. He called to John mildly, pursuing his way calmly and slowly along the stream.

2. Position of Adverbial Clauses and Adjuncts.

What has been asserted of adverbs, is equally true of what may be called adverbial clauses and adjuncts. By an adverbial clause or adjunct is meant a number of words, which, taken together, limit the meaning of some other word. All such clauses or adjuncts

should be so placed that they cannot easily be taken to qualify any other word than that for which they are intended.

"It contained a warrant for conducting me and my retinue to Traldragdubb, or Trildrogdrib, for it is pronounced both ways, as near as I can remember, by a party of ten horse."-Swift. What the author means to say, is that he and his retinue are to be conducted by a party of ten horse. What he does say, is that this place with the hard name is pronounced both ways by a party of ten horse. "The following lines were written by an esteemed friend, who has lain in the grave for many years, for his own amusement."-Anonymous. The author means that his friend had written the lines for his own amusement. What he says, is that his friend has lain in the grave many years for his own amusement!

In the English House of Commons, a speaker once said that a certain witness had been "ordered to withdraw from the bar in consequence of being intoxicated, by the motion of an honorable member,"-as if the witness was intoxicated by the motion! The speaker meant, that, "in consequence of being intoxicated, the witness, by the motion of an honorable meniber, had been ordered to withdraw from the bar of the House."

"The beaux of that day used the abominable art of painting their faces, as well as the women."-D' Israeli. That is, the beaux not only painted their faces, but painted the women also! The author meant to say, "The beaux of that day, as well as the women, used the abominable art of painting their faces."

"I remember when the French band of the Guides' were in this country, reading in the 'Illustrated News.'"-Alford. The author seems to say that these Frenchmen were reading in the Illustrated News. He means, "I remember reading in the Illustrated News, when the French band of the 'Guides' were in this country."

Examples for Practice.

[The student is expected to criticise and amend the following sentences, in regard to the position of the adverbial adjuncts and clauses.]

1. There is something that whispers of faith, too, in repose. 2. He was born in the old New England town, whose colonial history is so tragically memorable, on the 4th of July, 1804.

3. I could see that the floor had been swept with half an eye. 4. The enemy attacked us before the day had begun to break at three o'clock in the morning.

5. He went to town, driving a flock of sheep, on horseback. 6. Wanted, a young woman to take care of two orphan children, of a religious turn of mind.

7. Dr. Hall will deliver a lecture on the importance of taking exercise before breakfast at three o'clock in the afternoon.

8. Wanted, a room for a single gentleman, twelve feet long and six feet wide.

9. Lost, a cow belonging to an old woman, with brass knobs on her horns.

10. She lived a life of virtue, and died of the cholera morbus, caused by eating green fruit, in the full hope of a blessed immortality, at the age of twenty-one. Reader, go thou and do likewise.

11. The undersigned took up two young mares, four or five years old, a dark iron-gray, one had a wart on the right side of his head, eight miles north of Altoona.

12. He merely asks leave to come and play a little solo, on the bagpipes, of his own composing.

13. A man with one eye named Robert Welch.

14. Lost by a poor lad tied up in a brown paper with a white string a German flute with an overcoat and several other articles of wearing apparel.

15. Nature tells me, I am the image of God, as well as Scripture. 16. I lived in a small house which for a pleasant back opening Sir Matthew Hale had a mind to; but he caused a stranger, that he might not be suspected to be the man, to know of me whether I were willing to part with it before he would meddle with it.

17. The thirty years, from the year 1672 to his death, in which he acted so great a part, carry in them many amazing steps of a glorious and distinguishing Providence.

18. Though I can't say I ever actually saw a ghost in my life, yet I am certain I should know one if I saw him, better than that

comes to.

19. The transition is commonly made with ease from these to the higher and more important duties of life.

20. Passengers are requested to purchase tickets before entering the cars at the company's office.

21. The motion of the pendulum is repeated in the vibration of atoms of ether, not recognizable by the senses.

22. The author's object is to represent for his own pleasure the things witnessed, in as vivid and correct a manner as possible.

23. I recommend to you to take yourself back, and be talked to presently, you fool, while there 's time to retreat.

24. When at last we got into town, the people came out to their doors, all aslant and with streaming hair, making a wonder of the mail that had come through on such a night.

25. A child was run over by a heavy wagon, four years old, wearing a short pink dress, and bronze boots, whose parents are not yet found.