Management of And.-Considerable skill is needed for the proper management of the conjunction and. It is often used for stringing one clause upon another in a careless, slipshod way, which has an enfeebling effect upon the style. "The Academy set up by Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, and divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, brought this into vogue; and the French wits have, for this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and language; and, indeed, with such success, that it can hardly be equalled, and runs equally through their verse and their prose." Here are two faults, first an undue repetition of the "and;" secondly, putting into one sentence what would be more effective if made into two or three sentences. Thus: "The Academy set up by Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, and [to] divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, brought this into vogue. The French wits have [accordingly] for this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and language, and with such success, that it can hardly be equalled. It runs equally through their verse and their prose."

Apparent Paradox.— Here we may notice an apparent paradox in regard to the use of conjunctions. The object of the conjunction is to join words together, so as to make their connection more close; yet in effect we often mark a closer connection by omitting the connecting word. "[Charity] beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things." Here, by omitting the conjunction between the verbs, we actually bring the several effects or operations more closely together.* In consequence of the conjunction being out of the way, the mind passes more quickly from thought to thought. On the other hand, when the writer wishes us to rest for a moment on each item in an enumeration of particulars, the conjunction is repeated after each. "Such a man might fall a victim to power; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him."

Blair's Observation.—“ It is a remarkable peculiarity in language, that the omission of a connecting particle should sometimes serve to make objects appear more closely connected; and that the repetition of it should distinguish and separate them, in some measure, from each other. Hence, the omission of it is used to denote rapidity; and the repetition of it is designed to retard and to aggravate. The reason seems to be, that, in the former case, the mind is supposed to be hurried so fast through a quick succession of objects, that it has not leisure to point out their connection; it drops the copulatives in its hurry; and crowds the whole series together, as if it were but one object. When we enumerate, with a view to aggravate, the mind is supposed to proceed with a more slow and solemn pace; it marks fully the relation of each object to that which succeeds

*This figure, called Asyndeton (omitting the connectives), was much practised by Greek and Roman writers, and some examples have attained historical celebrity, as the Veni, vidi, vici of Cæsar, and the Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit of Cicero. So also the opposite figure, Polysyndeton (multiplying the connectives), was much in vogue among them.

It; and, by joining them together with several copulatives, makes you perceive that the objects, though connected, are yet in themselves distinct; that they are many, not one."

Some examples will illustrate these points:

"One effort, one, to break the circling host;

They form, unite, charge, waver, all is lost!"-Byron.

"Of their wonted vigor left them drained,

Exhausted, spiritless, afflicted, fallen."― Milton.

Observe how the repetition of the and in the following enumeration, serves to separate the several items, and thus to intensify and aggravate the whole:

"Love was not in their looks, either to God

Or to each other, but apparent guilt,

And shame, and perturbation, and despair,

Anger, and obstinacy, and hate, and guile."- Milton.

Observe, too, how the supplies needed by David and his men seem to be piled up in his camp by the eager zeal of the country people: "They brought beds, and basins, and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and flour, and parched corn, and beans, and lentils, and parched pulse, and honey, and butter, and sheep, and cheese of kine."-2 Sam. xvii. 28, 29.

So, too, our Saviour, in his description of the house upon the sand, by repeating the conjunction, obliges the mind of the reader to dwell on each successive stage in the sad catastrophe:

"And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell; and great was the fall of it."- Matt. vii. 27, 28.

A similar effect is produced by the repetition of or and nor.

"I am persuaded, that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature shall be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord."- Rom. viii. 38, 39.

"Thus with the year

Seasons return, but not to me returns

Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn,

Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose,

Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine."- Milton.

4. Bringing to a Conclusion.

The strength of a sentence is promoted by due care in bringing it to a conclusion.

The Reason. The mind naturally dwells upon the last word. We should be careful therefore not to end a sentence with any word that is comparatively unimportant, mean, or belittling. Such words should be disposed of in some less conspicuous place.

It is rarely expedient to end a sentence with an adverb.

"Such things were not allowed formerly." This sentence gains decidedly in strength by transposing the adverb thus: "Formerly such things were not allowed." It may be indeed that the adverb is emphatic. In that case, it should of course be placed wherever the emphasis will be brought out most clearly, as in this sentence: "In their prosperity, my friends shall never hear of me; in their adversity, always."

Avoid ending a sentence with a preposition.

"Avarice is a vice which wise men are often guilty of." Change thus: "Avarice is a vice of which wise men are often guilty.".

"He is one whom good men are glad to be acquainted with." Change thus: "He is one with whom good men are glad to be acquainted."

Objections to Ending with a Preposition. - Besides the want of dignity which arises from ending a sentence with one of these small monosyllables, with, from, of, in, to, by, and so on, the mind, as already stated, cannot help resting for a moment upon the last word; and if that word, instead of presenting some idea or picture to the imagination, some substantive import of its own, merely serves to point out the relation of some other words, the effect cannot be otherwise than enfeebling.

To laugh at, etc.-The rule is not to be observed so strictly in the case of prepositions which are used after a verb in such close relation to it as to make a virtual compound, like laugh at, bring about, lay hold of, clear up, etc. Even in these cases, however, it is desirable, so far as we can, to find some simple verb. of the same meaning, wherewith to end the sentence.

The Pronoun "it," especially when accompanied with a preposiion, as with it, in it, to it, etc., makes a feeble ending to the sentence.

"There is not, in my opinion, a more pleasing and triumphant consideration in religion, than this, of the perpetual progress which the soul makes towards the perfection of its nature, without ever arriving at a period in it.”

An unimportant phrase or circumstance brings up the rear of a sentence with a bad grace.

"Let me, therefore, conclude by repeating, that division has caused all the mischief or lament; that union alone can retrieve it; and that a great advance towards this union, was the coalition of parties, so happily begun, so successfully carried on, and of late so unaccountably neglected; to say no worse." The concluding phrase, which I have placed in italics, makes a sad falling off in a sentence otherwise admirably constructed.

Faulty Contrasts.-Observe how a sentence is weakened by faulty contrasts:

"William is the better reader, but John writes best."

"I cannot draw as well as I am able to sing."

"Philadelphia is the largest in extent, but New York contains a greater number of inhabitants."

"The President holds the Executive power of the land, but the Legislative power is vested in Congress."

5. Contrasted Changes.

In cases of contrast, the sentence becomes stronger and more effective, if the contrasted members are constructed alike.

"The laughers will be for those who have most wit; the serious part of mankind for those who have most reason on their side." Correct thus: "The laughers will be for those who have most wit; the serious for those who have most reason on their side."

“Ignorance is a blank sheet, on which we must write; error, a scribbled one, from which we must erase."

No English writer is more observant of this rule than Junius. Much indeed of the force of his invective is due to the perfection of his sentences in this respect.

"They are still base enough to encourage the follies of your age, as they once did the vices of your youth."

"They tell you, that.. as you lived without virtue, you should die without repentance."

6. Climax.

A sentence consisting of several clauses receives a great increase of strength by having its clauses arranged with a view to a climax.

The following passages afford instances of this style of construction:

"The power of man, his greatness, his glory, depend on essential qualities." "A word from his lips, a thought from his brain, might turn their hearts, might influence their passions, might change their opinions, might affect their destiny."

"This decency, this grace, this propriety of manners to character, is so essential to princes in particular, that, whenever it is neglected, their virtues lose a great degree of lustre, and their defects acquires much aggravation. Nay, more; by neglecting this decency and this grace, and for want of a sufficient regard to appearances, even their virtues may betray them into failings, their failings into vices, and their vices into habits unworthy of princes, and unworthy of men."

Climax not Common.-It is not always casy to construct a sentence in this way, that is, with a succession of clauses, each rising

and growing in importance above its predecessor. Not every subjects admits of such an arrangement, nor would it be desirable to construct all our sentences, or even a majority of them, on this model. The effect would be to destroy all simplicity, and to make the style stiff and pompous. Yet an occasional climax, brought in at the right time and place, has a powerful effect.

Climax of Sentences.- Not only clauses of the same sentence should be arranged with reference to this idea, but two or more independent sentences, coming in succession, may be made more effective by a similar arrangement. The general rule of Quintilian on the subject is, "That a weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a stronger one."

Cicero uses the following climax in his oration against Verres: "To bind a Roman citizen is an outrage; to scourge him is an atrocious crime; to put him to death is almost a parricide; but to put him to death BY CRUCIFIXION,-what shall I call it?"

Minor Climax.-Besides this elaborate sort of climax, which is necessarily only of occasional occurrence, there is a minor species. of climax which demands constant attention. Very many sentences, perhaps one-half or one-third of all that occur in ordinary composition, consist of two members or clauses, and of these clauses one is ordinarily longer than the other. In such cases, unless in any particular instance there is some reason to the contrary, the shorter clause should come first. Periods, thus divided, are pronounced more easily. Besides this, the shortest member being placed first, we carry it more readily in our memory while proceeding to the second.

"When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them." This is a better sentence than it would be, if the clauses were transposed, thus: "We flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions, when they have forsaken us."

Examples. The following examples will show how the meaning may be weakened, and even made ridiculous, by a poorly arranged climax:

Oh dear! oh dear! what shall I do?

I've lost my wife and seed-corn too!

He lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog, at one fell swoop. David was a great warrior, a great statesman, a great poet, and a skilful performer on the harp.

What were the results of this conduct? - beggary! dishonor! utter ruin! and a broken leg !