ience in teaching its use, the various instances may very properly be classified, forming a series of independent, though connected rules.*

RULE 1. Parenthetical Expressions.-Phrases and single words, used parenthetically, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Note 1. Phrases and words are parenthetical when they are not essential to the meaning and structure of the sentence in which they stand. Such words and phrases belong rather to some unexpressed thought that is in the mind, than to the thought actually expressed. Thus, "It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world." Here the phrase "after all" does not belong to the verb "does." The author does not mean to say that mind does the work of the world, after doing everything else. In like manner, it does not modify any other part of the expressed sentence. On the contrary, it belongs to some unexpressed thought, as though we were to say, "After all that can be claimed for other agents, we may still claim for the mind, that it does the work of the world." Sometimes the parenthetical word or phrase refers to what is expressed in the preceding sentence. Thus, "The danger was fully explained to him. His passions, however, prevented his seeing it." Parenthetical expressions, then, are such as are not necessary to the structure and meaning of the sentence in which they stand, if taken alone, but they are a part of the machinery, so to speak, by which the sentence is connected with some preceding sentence, or with some unexpressed sentence or thought existing in the mind of the writer. They are, in fact, of a conjunctional, rather than of an adverbial character.

Note 2. Many phrases and clauses, now treated as parenthetical expressions, and separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, were formerly inclosed by marks of parenthesis. The difference between a parenthesis and a parenthetical expression is mainly one of degree. If the clause or expression, thus thrust into the body of a sentence, is altogether independent in character, and may be omitted without disturbing the construction, or impairing the meaning, it is still usually inclosed in a parenthesis. But commas are gradually displacing the parenthesis, except in extreme and very manifest cases.

Note 3. Some of the phrases in common use, which require to be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following:

When these parenthetical expressions come at the beginning, or at the end of a sentence, they are, of course, set off by only a single comma; as, "To be sure, the man was rather conceited." "The affair passed off to your satisfaction, no doubt." See foot-note below.

* In framing these rules, it is customary to say, of certain clauses or sections of a sentence, that they are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, meaning that they have a comma before and a comma after. . In some instances, the section thus designated occurs at the beginning of the sentence, in which case it will of course have no comma before it; or, it may occur at the end of a sentence, in which case it will have after it, not a comma, but a period, or some other mark greater than

Note 4. Some of the single words used parenthetically, and ordinarily requiring to be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following:

Note 5. Most of the words last named are capable of two constructions They may belong either to the proposition as a whole, or to a single word in it. It is only when used in the former sense that they require to be set off by commas. Two or three examples will show the difference:

On this statement, then, you may entirely rely. Then I believed you, now I do

not.

I thought, too, that you were discontented. I think you are too selfish.

He promised, however, to set about reform at once. However much he promised, it was but little that he performed.

In all these cases, it will be noticed that when the word has an adverbial character, no commas are required; but when the word becomes connective or conjunctional, it must be set off from the rest by commas.

Note 6. Some words not of a parenthetical character, yet when standing at the beginning of a sentence, and referring to the sentence as a whole, rather than to a particular word, are set off by a comma; as, "Well, do as you like." "Why, this is all wrong." Some of the words thus used are well, why, now, yes, no, nay, again, further, first, secondly, thirdly, etc. In like manner, here and there, now and then, when used to introduce contrasted expressions, are set off by a comma; as, "Here, all is peace and quietness; there, all is turmoil and strife."

Examples for Practice.*

1. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to real enjoyment. 2. The locomotive bellows as it were from the fury of passion.

a comma. In the great majority of cases, however, the sections designated by the use of the comma occur in the body of the sentence, requiring a comma before and a comma after; and the rules will be expressed in this general manner, leaving it to the common sense of the student to make the necessary correction in the case of sections thus cut off at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, and without stopping to make a special exception under each rule.

*To the Teacher. 1. In these and the other examples for practice which will be given throughout the book, constant vigilance must be used to prevent the pupils from marking the corrections in the book. A book so marked is valueless for the purpose of study or instruction. It should at once be destroyed, and replaced by a new copy at the expense of the offending party. A stated inspection of the books, for the purpose of preventing this fraud, is as necessary a part of the teacher's duty, as it is to examine the exercises presented.

2. The exercises should not be brought in written out beforehand, but should in all cases be written in the class-room. This should be considered an essential part of the recitation. There is no other way of ascertaining that the pupil makes the corrections from his own independent judgment, and unless he does this, the exercise is a mere waste of time.

3. In most cases, the following will be found a convenient mode of procedure: 1. Let the students seriatim present their books at the teacher's desk for inspection, each book, as presented, being open at the page containing the lesson, and let the books remain there piled, until the lesson is over. 2. Let the teacher dictate the examples, and the students write and correct them, using for this purpose either the blackboards, slates, or paper, according to circumstances.

3. He knows very well come what may that the note will be paid. 4. He had no doubt great aptitude for learning languages.

5. He went home accordingly and arranged his business in the manner described.

6. There are in truth only two things to be considered namely his honesty and his ability.

7. Come then and let us reason together.

8. No nation in short is free from danger.

9. When however the hour for the trial came, the man was not to be found.

10. Why those are the very books you want.

11. I proceed fourthly to prove the fact from your own admissions.

12. On the other hand there is great danger in delay.

13. We must however pay some respect to the opinions of one who has had so large an experience.

14. I have shown how just and equitable the arrangement is; and now what is the fair conclusion?

15. Attend first to the study of arithmetic; and secondly to that of algebra.

16. Feudalism is in fact the embodiment of pride.

17. The meeting after all was something of a failure.

18. Besides it may be of the greatest importance to you in your business.

RULE 2. Intermediate Expressions.- Clauses and expressions, not parenthetical in character, yet so placed as to come between some of the essential parts of the sentence, as, for instance, between the subject and the predicate, may be called intermediate expressions, and they should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Note.-Care should be taken to distinguish these intermediate expressions from such as are properly restrictive in their character. An expression is restrictive, when it limits the meaning of some particular word to some particular sense. Thus, "The man who plants the field ought to reap the harvest." Here it is not "the man" merely, but "the man who plants the field," that is the subject of "ought." A separation of the relative and its adjuncts from "man," by means of commas, would destroy the sense. The clause, therefore, is restrictive. It limits the meaning to that particular man. But suppose I say, "Joseph, who happened to be in the field at the time, saw the carriage approach, and, in an ecstasy of delight, hastened to meet it." Here, the expression, "who happened

to be in the field at the time," is properly a relative clause, and comes under Rule 4 (p. 28); and the expression, “in an ecstasy of delight," is properly intermediate, and comes under Rule 2. The former breaks the continuity between the subject and the predicate; the latter, between the two predicates.

Examples for Practice.

1. Classical studies regarded merely as a means of culture are deserving of general attention.

2. The sun with all its train of attendant planets is but a small and inconsiderable portion of the universe.

3. We have endeavored in the preceding paragraph to show the incorrectness of his position.

4. Nature through all her works delights in variety.

5. The speaker proceeded with the greatest animation to depict the horrors of the scene.

6. Christianity is in a most important sense the religion of sor

row.

7. A man of great wealth may for want of education and refinement of manner be a mere cipher in society.

8. Truth like gold shines brighter by collision.

9. Charity on whatever side we contemplate it is one of the highest Christian graces.

10. One hour a day steadily given to a particular study will bring in time large accumulations.

RULE 3. Dependent and Conditional Clauses.-Dependent and conditional clauses should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, or by commas.

Note 1. Clauses are dependent, when one of them is subject to the other for the completion of the sense.

Note 2. One of the dependent clauses usually begins with if, unless, until, when, where, or other word expressive of condition, purpose, cause, time, place, and the like; as, "If you would succeed in business, be honest and industrious." "The tree will not bear fruit in autumn, unless it blossoms in spring." This conditional word, however, is not always expressed, the condition being sometimes implied; as, "Breathe into a man an earnest purpose, and you awaken in him a new power." Here the meaning is, "If you breathe into a man an earnest purpose, you will awaken," etc.

Note 3. This rule does not apply where the grammatical connection is very close, the succeeding clause in that case being of a restrictive character; as, "You will reap as you sow," "You may go when you please."

Note 4. For the same reason, clauses united by the conjunction that should not be separated by a comma; as, “He went abroad that he might have opportunities for study." When, however, the conjunction is removed some distance from the verb, or the words "in order" precede, so that the grammatical continuity is somewhat broken, the comma is used; as, "He went through the principal provinces of the empire, that he might see for himself the condition of the people." "He went abroad, in order that he might see foreign countries."

Examples for Practice.

Note. In punctuating these examples and those which are to follow, insert not only the points required by the rule under consideration, but also those required by all the preceding rules.

1. If you would succeed in business be punctual in observing your engagements.

2. The days in December you know are at their shortest and therefore you must rise by the dawn if you would have much daylight.

3. The reader should however as he proceeds from sentence to sentence make a note of whatever strikes his attention.

4. The good which you do may not be lost though it may be forgotten.

5. Good deeds though forgotten are not in every case lost.

6. John went last year to Canton where he is doing they say an excellent business.

7. If wishes were horses beggars might ride.

8. Unless you bridle your tongue you will assuredly be shut out from good society.

9. We should in all probability be ashamed of much that we boast of could the world see our real motive.

10. Attend that you may receive instruction. 11. You may go home as soon as you like.

12. One object of studying Rhetoric is that we may compose better.

QUESTIONS. Which of the commas used in Note 1 can be explained by any of the rules given thus far?-which in Note 2?-which in Note 3-which in Note 4?

RULE 4. Relative Causes not Restrictive. -Clauses introduced by a relative pronoun, if not restrictive, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

*

*The teacher should at this point take particular pains in accustoming the student to distinguish clearly and promptly between clauses which are, and those