only. A man might with propriety lecture on differential calculus to a company of savans or to an advanced class in college, but he could hardly do so to a mixed popular assembly. Whoever wishes to succeed as a lecturer, or as a speaker of any kind, must study his audience as well as his subject, and adapt his discourse both to the occasion and the hearers.

3. Symmetry.-A Discourse is symmetrical when it has all the parts belonging to such a production, and these parts are all in due order and correlation.

Parts of a Discourse. The parts properly belonging to a formal discourse are-1. The Introduction. 2. The Statement of the Subject. 3. The Main Discourse. 4. The Conclusion. On each of these a few observations will be made.

1. The Introduction. A formal introduction or exordium is not always required. Its object, when used, is, first, to conciliate the goodwill of the hearers; secondly, to gain their attention; thirdly, to make them open to conviction by removing any prejudices or prepossessions they may have against the topic or the cause which we are about to present. As a good introduction is one of the most important, so it is one of the most difficult parts of a discourse.

Things to be Observed.—The rules to be observed in regard to it are: first, that it be easy and natural, arising from the subject itself; secondly, that it be expressed with more than usual accuracy and care, as the hearers are never in so critical a mood as then; thirdly, that it have an air of modesty, which in the beginning of a discourse is especially prepossessing; fourthly, that it should be calm and moderate, the audience being not yet prepared for anything strong and vehement; fifthly, that it should not anticipate any of the main points of the discourse, and thus deprive them of the advantage of novelty, when they are brought forward for consideration.

2. The Statement. - - When by a good introduction a speaker has done what he can to gain for himself and his subject a favorable hearing, his next business is to state the subject of his discourse. The only rule to be observed in regard to this is that the subject should be stated in few and simple words, and with the utmost possible clearness.

3. The Main Discourse. -Writers on rhetoric have made here many subdivisions, such as the explication or narration, the division, the argumentative part, and the pathetic part, and under each

of these they have laid down almost numberless rules. But the utility of such rules and divisions is very much doubted. Each man must of necessity be left to his own judgment and powers of invention as to the best manner of constructing the body of his discourse. No two topics ordinarily are to be handled precisely alike; no two writers handle the same topic exactly in the same way; no writer himself handles a topic in the same way under different circumstances.

4. The Conclusion. - The Conclusion or Peroration of a discourse, like the Introduction, requires special care. The object in the conclusion is to leave as strong an impression as possible upon the minds of the audience.

How Done. Sometimes this is done by reserving to the last the strongest part or head of the discourse and ending with it. Sometimes the speaker gives a brief and striking summary of the whole discourse. The main thing to be observed is to hit upon the precise time for bringing the discourse to a point. If this is done too abruptly, it leaves the hearers expectant and dissatisfied. If, when the discourse seems ended and the hearers are looking for the close, the speaker continues turning round and round the point, without coming to a pause, the audience become restless and tired. There are indeed very few speakers that know how or when to stop.

In the Introduction to the present Treatise, it was remarked that Rhetoric, or the Art of Discourse, is naturally divided into two parts, Invention and Style. Logically, Invention would seem to come first, and Style afterwards. For practical convenience, however, this arrangement has been reversed, and Style has been treated of first.

say.

Invention is divided into two branches: 1. Storing the mind with knowledge; 2. Selecting from this general storehouse the thoughts needed for any particular occasion.

Storing the Mind. The first of these belongs to education and general intellectual culture, rather than to Rhetoric. If one is to write on any given subject, he can, of course, know better what to say, if he is a man of profound and varied knowledge.

Mistake of the Older Writers. - Hence, some of the ancient writers on this subject included under Rhetoric the whole circle of the sciences. But this is to mistake entirely the nature and design of Rhetoric. In order to the practice of this art we need, indeed, varied knowledge, just as we need boards and beams and other materials in order to practise the art of carpentry. It is not a part of the art of carpentry, however, to create these materials; but, the materials being already in existence and in possession, carpentry, having to make some particular structure, finds out which of these materials will be needed for the occasion.

The Office of Invention.—Somewhat similar to this is the office of Inven. tion in rhetoric. When one undertakes to discourse on any particular point, he must hunt up thoughts in regard to it; and these he will find, partly in his already acquired knowledge, and partly by special study for the occasion; and the more comprehensive is his general knowledge and education, the less of this special study will he have to make when finding materials for discourse.

Comparative Importance. — Invention is, from the necessity of the case, of more importance than Style. It is more important surely to have something of substantial interest and value to say, than to be able to trick out vapid nothings in forms of grace and elegance.

Difficulty.-As invention is the more important of the two, so it is incomparably the more difficult. Indeed, as to its principal functions, it is not in the power of mere rhetoric to supply what is needed. Invention, except in its lowest and most mechanical details, is not a thing to be taught. It is a part of one's native endowment, and of his general intellectual accumulations. To gather and muster the materials for an essay, as Macaulay would have done, one needs Macaulay's genius and Macaulay's learning. No amount or ingenuity of pumping will draw water from a well that is dry.

The Great Desideratum. — So far as human efforts are concerned, the first and great thing that is needed, in order to be able to pro duce thoughts which shall be valuable and interesting, is to acquire extensive knowledge and thorough mental discipline, and this is to be accomplished, as already said, by general education and study, not by the application of rhetorical rules.

A Help.— While freely conceding this point, I yet think it is in the power of the rhetorical art to help considerably the beginner in the use of such materials as he has. To furnish some such help is the object of the chapters which follow.

Ancient Mode. -The ancient writers on rhetoric, and some of recent date, have given a great variety of technical rules, some of them exceedingly formal and elaborate, for conducting these processes of invention.

Mode here Adopted. Instead of producing such a learned array of barren formulas, which, at the best, are only perplexing to the beginner in the art of composition, as they are useless to the expert, the plan here adopted is to give a series of practical examples, in illustration of the actual process of invention, beginning with such as are extremely simple, and proceeding gradually to such as are more difficult.

To the Teacher.-1. The examples given in the first few pages are for begin. ners. If your class is already somewhat proficient in composition and in general knowledge, it will be well to skip the first chapter or two, and begin farther on in the book, where the exercises are less simple.

2. Beginners in composition should not be allowed to write on abstract subjects, such as Happiness. Hypocrisy, Intemperance, Procrastination, and the like, but on some concrete, visible object, with which they are familiar.

3. In assigning subjects to a class, it is well at first to help them in making an outline of the things to be said about it. After this has been done for them a few times, they will have no difficulty in doing it for themselves, and finally in writing out their ideas at once, without making the preliminary outline.

4 Try to possess your pupils from the first with the idea that what they have to do is simply to express in words what they know, or what they think, about the subject proposed.

5. At first, aim only at copiousness, correcting no faults except those in grammar and punctuation, and encouraging pupils to write freely whatever thoughts occur about the subject, and in whatever order they occur.

6. When the class begin to write freely, and find no difficulty in filling a page or two with their loose remarks, then begin to criticise and correct.*

7. In making these corrections, proceed with only one class of faults at a time, and correct no fault except this, until the pupils have become pretty familiar with it. Then take some other fault or excellence, and proceed in like manner. 8. After a class can write with facility and general correctness, then begin to experiment upon the use of figures and other graces of style.

To the Teacher.-In assigning a subject like this to a class of young scholars, the teacher should direct their attention to the various points in regard to it, about which they will be likely to have some idea. In this way a preliminary Outline of the subject may be formed. Thus:

OUTLINE.

1. General appearance of paper.

2. Its color.

For methods of correction, see page 347.