Note 1. See Note under Rule 2, for an explanation of what is meant by restrictive clauses.

Note 2. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restrictively, if it is immediately followed by a word or a phrase inclosed in commas; as, Those friends, who, in the native vigor of his powers, perceived the dawn of Robertson's future eminence, were at length amply rewarded."

Note 3. A comma should be put before the relative, even when used restrictively, if several words intervene between it and its grammatical antecedent; as, "He preaches most eloquently, who leads the most pious life." In like manner, of which and of whom, even when used restrictively, are preceded by a comma; as, "No thought can be just, of which good sense is not the groundwork."

Note 4. When the relative has for its antecedent several succeeding nouns or clauses, it should be separated from them by a comma, even though the relative clause is restrictive. Thus: "There are fruits which never ripen." "There are apples, pears, and plums, which never ripen." Here, if the comma after "plums" is omitted, the fact of never ripening is restricted to plums, and the meaning is, "There are apples, there are pears, and there are unripening plums." But, by inserting the comma, the restriction is made to refer to all three of these objects.

Examples for Practice.

1. A fierce spirit of rivalry which is at all times a dangerous passion had now taken full possession of him.

2. The spirit which actuated him was a thirst for vengeance.

3. The man of letters who has constantly before him examples of excellence ought himself to be a pattern of excellence.

4. Books which are the repositories of knowledge are an indispensable part of the furniture of a house.

5. Every teacher must love a pupil who is docile.

6. The child was much attached to his teacher who loved him dearly.

7. Patriotism consists in loving the country in which we were born.

8. The eye which sees all things is unseen to itself.

9. Death is the season which tests our principles.

10. No man can be thoroughly proficient in navigation who has never been at sea.

11. The father of Epic poetry is Homer who has given us in the Iliad the story of Troy divine.

which are not, restrictive. "It is barbarous to injure men who have shown us a kindness." Here the first part of the sentence lays down a proposition, and the relative clause restricts the meaning to certain persons. "Give time to the study of nature, whose laws are all deeply interesting." Here the relative clause is not restrictive, but merely presents an additional thought.

12. The powers which now move the world are the printing-press and the telegraph.

13. America may well boast of her Washington whose character and fame are the common property of the world.

QUESTIONS. Which of the commas used in Note 2 can be explained by any of the rules now given? — which in Note 3?which in Note 4?- which in the foot-note?

RULE 5. A Continued Sentence consisting of Co-ordinate Sentences. In a continued sentence, consisting of co-ordinate sentences, the several co-ordinate sentences, if simple in construction, are separated from each other by commas.

Note. If, however, these co-ordinate members are complex and involved, especially if they have commas within themselves, the members should be separated by a semicolon; as, "Crafty men, though they may pretend otherwise, contemn studies; simple men, though they really care nothing about the matter, yet pretend to admire them; wise men only use them."

Examples for Practice.

1. Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and wise men use them.

2. Speak as you mean do as you profess perform what you promise.

3. Cæsar was dead the senators were dispersed all Rome was in confusion.

4. France was again reduced to its original geographical boundaries and England after a struggle of twenty years was undisputed mistress of the seas.

5. Modern engineering spans whole continents tunnels alike mountains and rivers and dykes out old ocean himself.

RULE 6. Expressions forming a Series.- Grammatical expressions in the same cstruction, forming a series, should be separated from each other, and from what follows, by

commas.

Note 1. A grammatical expression is a collection of words, having some grammatical dependence and connection, but not containing in themselves a predicate.

Note 2. If the expressions are brief, and there are but two of them, connected by and, or, or nor, no comma between them is needed; as, "Hard study and neglect of exercise impair the health." If, however, the two connected expressions differ much in form, it is better to set them off by commas; as, “Hard study, and the entire absence of attention to the matter of diet, bring on disease."

Note 3. If the series of expressions brings the sentence to a close, the last of them, of course, is not followed by a comma, but by a period or some other point greater than a commia. See foot-note, p. 24.

Examples for Practice.

1. Love for study a desire to do right and carefulness in the choice of friends are important traits of character.

2. To cleanse our opinions from falsehood our hearts from malignity and our actions from vice is our chief concern.

3. Did God create for the poor a coarser earth a thinner air a paler sky?

4. Infinite space endless numbers and eternal duration fill the mind with great ideas.

5. On the rich and the eloquent on nobles and priests the Puritans looked down with contempt.

QUESTION. What commas in Rule 6, and in Notes 1 and 2, can be explained by any of the rules thus far given?

RULE 7. Words forming a Series.-Words in the same construction, forming a series, admit of the following three cases:

1. There may be a conjunction between each two of the words; as, "Industry and honesty and frugality and temperance are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, none of the words in the series are to be separated by commas.

2. The conjunction may be omitted, except between the last two of the words; as, "Industry, honesty, frugality, and temperance are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, all the words are to be separated from each other by commas.

3. The conjunction may be omitted between the last two words, as well as between the others; as, "Industry, honesty, frugality, temperance, are among the cardinal virtues." In this case, not only all the words of the series are to be separated from each other by commas, but a comma is to be inserted also after the last word, to separate it from what follows.

Note 1. A comma is not in any case to be inserted after the last word of a series, if what follows is only a single word; as, "The good will form hereafter stronger, purer, holier ties."

Note 2. In such expressions as "A beautiful white horse," no comma should be inserted between the two adjectives, because they are not in the same grammatical construction. "White" belongs to "horse" merely. "Beautiful" belongs properly to the whole expression "white horse." It is not simply the "horse," but the "white horse" that is said to be beautiful.

Examples for Practice.

1. He was brave and pious and patriotic in all his aspirationa 2. He was brave pious and patriotic in all his aspirations. 3. He was brave pious patriotic in all his aspirations.

4. He was a brave pious patriotic man.

5. Aright aleft above below he whirled the rapid sword.

6. The address was beautifully elegantly and forcibly written.

7. Can flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death?

8. Within around and above us we see traces of the Creator's hand.

9. We are fearfully wonderfully made.

10. The sun the moon the planets the stars revolve.

11. The sun the moon the planets the stars are all in motion.

12. The sun the moon the planets and the stars are all in motion.

13. Virtue religion is the one thing needful.

14. It is a useful accomplishment to be able to read write spell or cipher with accuracy.

15. Woe woe to the rider that tramples them down.

16. Aristotle Hamilton Whately and McCosh are high authorities in logic.

17. The air the earth the water teem with life.

QUESTION. Which of the commas used in the Rule and the Notes can be explained by the Rules already given?

RULE 8. Words or Phrases in Pairs.-Words or phrases in pairs take a comma after each pair.

Examples for Practice.

1. Anarchy and confusion poverty and distress desolation and ruin are the consequences of civil war.

2. Truth and integrity kindness and modesty reverence and devo tion were all remarked in him.

3. The poor and the rich the weak and the strong the young and the old have one common Father.

4. To have and to hold for better for worse for richer for poorer in sickness and in health to love and to cherish.

5. Eating or drinking laboring or sleeping let us do all in moderation.

RULE 9. Nouns in Apposition.—A noun in apposition to some preceding noun or pronoun, and having an adjunct consisting of several words, should, with all its connected words, be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Note 1. This construction is sometimes inverted, the noun in apposition, with its adjuncts, being placed first. In that case, this preceding noun with its adjuncts should be separated from the main noun or pronoun by a comma; as, "Himself the greatest of agitators, Napoleon became the most repressive of tyrants."

Note 2. Where the noun put in apposition stands alone, or has only an article before it, no comma is required between said noun and the word with which it is in apposition; as, "Paul the apostle was a man of energy." "Mason Brothers."

Note 3. A noun following another as a synonym, or as giving additional illustration to the thought, is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma before and after; as, "The word Poet, meaning a maker, a creator, is derived from the Greek."

Note 4. When a noun is predicated of the noun or pronoun with which it is in apposition, no comma is required between them; as, "They have just elected him Governor of the State."

Note 3. After several words containing a description of a person or thing, if the name of the person or thing is added, it should be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "The greatest of poets among the ancients, Homer, like the greatest among the moderns, Milton, was blind."

Note 6. A title, whether abbreviated or expressed in full, when annexed to a noun or pronoun, must be set off by commas; as. "At the request of the Rt. Rev. W. H. Odenheimer, D.D., the ceremony was postponed."

Examples for Practice.

1. We the people of the United States do hereby ordain and establish this Constitution.

2. Paul the great apostle of the Gentiles was a man of energy. 3. Virgil the chief poet among the Romans was fond of rural life. 4. The poet Shakespeare is now considered the greatest of writers ancient or modern.

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