"John Chap.

breviation; as, "He reported the death of John Chapman, M.D." man, M.D., at the early age of twenty-four, was carried off by disease." Note 3. When two or more abbreviated titles follow each other, they must be separated from each other by commas, just as they would be, if written out in full. Thus: "Thomas Sumner, Doctor of Divinity, Doctor of Laws, Bishop of London," abbreviated, becomes, "Thomas Sumner, D.D., LL.D., Bp. of London." Note 4. Proper names are sometimes permanently shortened, the short form being meant, not as an ordinary abbreviation, but as the real and true name. This was the case with the celebrated dramatist, Ben Jonson. We have analogous and more familiar instances in Ned Buntline, Bill Smith, Tom Jones, etc. In such cases, no period should be inserted to mark abbreviation.

Note 5. In like manner, various other abbreviations which are in very familiar use acquire the character of integral words, not requiring the period after them to denote abbreviations. They become nouns, with a singular and a plural. Thus, in England, Cantab (an abridgment of Cantabrigiensis, and meaning an alumnus of Cambridge University), has become a noun, the body of the alumni being called Cantabs, and any one of them a Cantab. In like manner, we have Jap and Japs for Japanese, consol and consols for consolidated loan or consolidated loans of the British Government, three per cents, five per cents, etc.*

Note 6. The letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, etc., A, B, C, etc., when used in geometry and other sciences to represent quantities, are not abbreviations, and should not be so marked by the insertion of a period.

Note 7. When the letters of the alphabet are used to represent numerals, it is customary to insert a period at the end of each completed numeral; as, Psalms iv., xxi., lxxxvi., cxix., etc. When dates are thus expressed, the whole number is separated into periods of thousands, hundreds, and the portion less than a hundred; as, M.DCCC.LXXI. for the year one thousand, eight hundred, and seventy-one, or 1871.

Note 8. The Arabic figures, 1, 2, 3, etc., and the various marks used by printers, as ? for section, ¶ for paragraph, etc., are not abbreviations, but stand for whole words, and therefore do not require the period. The period is used, however, before decimals, and between pounds and shillings; as, £2. 10s. 4d. sterling is worth $13.719 at the present rate of exchange.

Note 9. The words 4to, 8vo, 12mo, etc., are not strictly abbreviations, the figures representing a part of the word. If the letters were writtten in place of the figures which represent them, it would be seen at once that the words are complete, quar-to, octa-vo, duodeci-mo, etc. Periods therefore are not required for such words. The same rule will apply to 1st, 2dly, 3dly, etc.

Examples for Practice.

[To the Student. Give the Rule for each comma, semicolon, colon, or period that you find in the examples which are punctuated; and insert these points

*This word cent, in the combination per cent, had become thoroughly established as an integral word, and was almost universally written and printed without the mark of abbreviation; but of late years, some of our book-makers, in a spirit of hypercriticism, have insisted, unwisely I think, on restoring the period after cent to show that it is an abbreviation of centum. They ought in consistency to put a period after quart, to show that it is an abbreviation of quarta, or after cab, because it is abbreviated for cabriolet..

where needed, giving the Rules for the same, in the examples not punctuated. When a period is used to mark the end of a sentence, the word following, if there is one, should begin with a capital.]

1. Excellence in conversation depends the attainments which one has made

if

in a great measure on

therefore

education is neglected conversation will become trifling if perverted corrupting.

2. The laws of Phoroneus were established 1807 B C those of Lycurgus 884 B C of Draco 623 B C of Solon 587 B C See chap vii & xiv ¶ 7 p 617

3. The reader is requested to

refer to the following passages of

Scripture Ex xx 18 Deut xx 21 2 Sam 19 2

4. Bought on 9 mos credit – the following articles – 4 yds 3 qrs 2 n of broadcloth at $12 a yd 6 gals 1 pt 2 gi of vinegar at 65 cts a gal and 3 cords of wood at $7.50 a cord * 5. Poetry was not the sole praise of either; for both excelled likewise in prose: but Pope did not borrow his prose from his predecessor.

6. Dryden's page is a natural field rising into inequalities and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation Pope's is a velvet lawn shaven by the scythe and levelled by the roller.

7. Of genius that power which constitutes a poet that quality without which judgment is cold – and knowledge is inert ○ that energy which collects combines amplifies and animates the superiority must with some hesitation be allowed to Dryden

8. It is not to be inferred, that of this poetical vigor Pope had only a little, because Dryden had more; for every other writer since Milton must give place to Pope; and even of Dryden it must be said, that, if he has brighter paragraphs, he has not better poems.

The teacher may multiply and vary indefinitely examples like the 2d, 3d, 4th, using for this purpose the ordinary school-books on Arithmetic, Geography, etc. Such examples should be given until the student is entirely familiar with the modes of punctuating these common abbreviations.

SECTION V.

THE INTERROGATION POINT.

An Interrogation Point is used for marking questions.

Note 1. In regard to the portion of discourse marked off by it, the Interrogation Point is equivalent most commonly to a period; but it may be equivalent to a colon, a semicolon, or a comma. It is a question of some importance to know, in each case, to which of these four points the interrogation point is equivalent, because upon this depends the propriety of using, or not using, a capital after it. When there is, in that particular construction, but one interrogation point, it is always equivalent to a period, and should be followed by a capital. When, however, there is a succession of questions, following each other in a series, without any affirmative sentences intervening, the interrogation points sometimes represent sections of discourse less than a period. The way to determine to which class the particular questions belong is to change the construction into an affirmative form. It will in one case be resolved into a series of independent sentences, separated by periods; in the other, into a connected or continued sentence, with co-ordinate members separated by commas, semicolons, or colons. Example. "Who will bring me into the strong city? who will lead me into Edom? Wilt not thou, O God, who hast cast us off? and wilt not thou, O God, go forth with our hosts?" (Ps. 108: 10, 11.) Change to the affirmative form. "Some one will bring me into the strong city; some one will lead me into Edom. Thou, O God, who hast cast us off, wilt do it; thou, O God, wilt go forth with our hosts." Another example. "Who goeth a warfare any time at his own charges? who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof? or who feedeth a flock, and eateth not of the milk of the flock? Say I these things as a man? or saith not the law the same also?" (1 Cor. 9: 7, 8.) Affirmatively: No one goeth a warfare at any time at his own charges; no one planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof; no one feedeth a flock, and eateth not of the milk of the flock. I do not say these things as a man; the law saith the same things also." Another example. "Shall a man obtain the favor of Heaven by impiety? by murder? by falsehood? by theft?" Affirmatively: "A man cannot obtain the favor of Heaven by impiety, by murder, by falsehood, by theft."

RULE 1. Direct Questions. The Interrogation Point should be placed at the end of every direct question.

Note 1. A direct question is one in regular form, requiring, or at least admitting an answer; as, "Why do you neglect your duty?" An indirect question is one that is merely reported or spoken of; as, "He inquired why you neglected your duty."

Note 2. When there is a succession of questions, having a common grammatical dependence on some preceding word or clause. each question forming by itself an incomplete sentence, some writers place an interrogation point only at the end of the series, and separate the several members by a dash, or perhaps by a comma. This method of punctuation is not correct. Each question, no

matter how short or broken, should have its own point. See the example im. mediately preceding Rule 1.

Note 3. Where the words on which a series of questions have a common dependence come after the questions, instead of preceding them, there should be an interrogation point only at the end; as, "Where be your gibes now; your gambols; your songs; your flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table in a roar?" Here the clause italicized refers back to all four items, the "gibes," ". gambols," ,” “songs," and "flashes of merriment." They all have a grammatical dependence upon it. If the sentence should be transposed, so as to place this clause first, then each question will come out complete, and will have its interrogation point. Thus: "Where now be those things of yours that were wont to set the table in a roar?-your gibes? your gambols? your songs? your flashes of merriment?"

Note 4. Sometimes a question is intended, although the words are not put in the usual interrogative form. Thus: "You will come this afternoon?" In such cases the interrogation point should be used, as in this example, although the sentence may be declarative in its form.

Note 5. When a question formally introduces a remark or a quotation, the question should first be brought to a close with an interrogation point, and then the remark or quotation should follow; as, Who that has read can ever forget the words of Hamlet's soliloquy?—

"To be, or not to be; that is the question :
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune;
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them."

SECTION VI.

THE EXCLAMATION POINT.

The Exclamation Point is used for marking strong emotion. Note 1. In regard to the portion of discourse set off by it, the exclamation point, like the interrogation point, is equivalent commonly to a period; but it may be equivalent to a colon, a semicolon, or a comma. The same considerations govern here that govern in the case of the Interrogation. See Note under Interrogation Point."

46

RULE 1. The Exclamation Point must be used at the close of every sentence, clause, or grammatical expression, intended to convey strong emotion.

Note. Inexperienced and weak writers are apt to deal largely in the use of the exclamation point, as if to make up for the feebleness of the thought by mere tricks of punctuation. Young writers therefore should be on their guard in this

matter, and not use the exclamation point unless there is some real and strong emotion to be expressed.

RULE 2. The Exclamation Point must be used after an interjection; as,

Fie on him! Ah me! Oh! it hurts me. Oh that I could find him! O father Abraham! O Lord !*

Note 1. Where the interjection does not stand by itself, but forms part of a sentence, clause, or expression, the exclamation point should be placed at the end of the whole expression, and not immediately after the interjection; as, "O wretched state! O bosom black as death!"

Note 2. Sometimes oh is grammatically separable from the words following it, though the emotion runs through the whole. In that case, there should be a comma after the oh, and the exclamation point at the end of the whole expression; as, "Oh, where shall rest be found!"

Note 3. When an interjection is repeated several times, the words are separated from each other by a comma, the exclamation being put only after the Jast; as, "Fie, fie, fie! pah, pah! give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my imagination."

Note 4. Two of the interjections, eh and hey, are sometimes uttered in a pecuriar tone, so as to ask a question. In that case, they should be followed by the interrogation point; as, "You thought you would not be found out, eh?"

RULE 3. Where the emotion to be expressed is very strong, more than one exclamation point is sometimes used; as, "That man virtuous!! You might as well preach to me of the virtue of Judas Iscariot!!"

Note. This mode of repeating the exclamation point is much used in burlesque and satire.

Examples for Practice.

[To the Student. These examples, though intended mainly for illustrating the Rules for the marks of Interrogation and Exclamation, will yet serve the incidental purpose of reviewing all the preceding rules.]

* In regard to the two words O and oh, Webster says: A distinction between the use of O and oh is insisted on by some, namely, that O should be used only in direct address to a person or personified object, and should never be followed by the exclamation point, while oh should be used in mere exclamations where no direct appeal or address to an object is made, and may be followed by the exclamation point or not, according to the nature or construction of the sentence. This distinction, however, is nearly or totally disregarded by most writers, even the best, the two forms being generally used quite indiscriminately. The form O is the one most commonly employed for both uses by modern writers. "O for a kindling touch from that pure flame!" Wordsworth. "O what a rapturous cry!" "O Eldon, in whatever sphere thou shine." "Strike, oh Muse, in a measure bold!" Macaulay, "O, what a fair and ministering angel!" "O sweet angel!" Longfellow. "O sir, oh prince, I have no country: none." Tennyson.