tioned, that of entreaty, a more precise writer would have used the word inexor⚫ able, which means specifically one who cannot be moved by entreaty.

"Attitude of devotion" is a more precise expression than "posture of devotion," because "posture" signifies any position of the body, while "attitude" refers to such a position of the body as is adapted to express some internal feeling or purpose.

The Study of Synonyms.- One who wishes to use words with precision should study carefully the subject of Synonyms. Few words in any language are exactly synonymous. Many, which at first sight appear to be so, are found on examination to have shades of difference, and it is by noticing these slight differences of meaning that we learn to use words with precision.

Character of the English Language in Regard to Synonyms.- The English, more than almost any other language, has words that are truly synonymous, and this on account of its composite character. For the same idea we have, in thousands of instances, one word from the Saxon, another from the Latin, and sometimes still a third from the Greek; as, daily and diurnal, weekly and hebdomadal, happiness and felicity, everlasting and sempiternal, fatherly and paternal, nightly and nocturnal, powerful and potential.

A Caution.- Even here, however, care must be taken. Optician, from the Greek, means a maker of instruments for the eye; Oculist, from the Latin, means one who performs operations upon the eye itself; and Eye-doctor, from the mother-tongue, means a quack who has some nostrum for curing sore eyes. Motherly may perhaps be the exact logical equivalent for maternal, but it is worth a good deal more to a loving heart when away from the endearments of childhood and home.

Books on the Subject.-Crabbe's Dictionary of Synonyms is a most valuable work for reference on this subject. Another excellent work is Roget's Thesaurus of English Words. The matter is also carefully treated in the latest edition of Webster's Quarto Dictionary, where under many of the leading words the various other words which are nearly synonymous are given, and the differences explained. The subject is also discussed briefly, but in a judicious and satisfactory manner, by Blair in his Lectures on Rhetoric. I give a few examples, taken chiefly from these sources, though with some alterations to suit the purposes of the present work.

A difficulty, an obstacle.-A difficulty embarrasses, an obstacle stops us. We remove the one, we surmount the other. Generally, the first expresses something arising from the nature and circumstances of the affair; the second something arising from a foreign cause. Philip found difficulty in managing the Athe

nians from the nature of their dispositions; but the eloquence of Demosthenes was the greatest obstacle to his designs.

Opportunity, occasion.—An occasion is that which falls in our way, or presents itself in the course of events; an opportunity is a convenience or fitness of time and place for the doing of a thing. Hence opportunities often spring out of occasions. We may have occasion to meet a person frequently without getting an opportunity to converse with him on a particular subject about which we are anxious. We act as occasion may require; we embrace an opportunity.

Malevolence, malice, malignity.-There is the same difference between malevolence and malice as between wishes and intentions. A malevolent man wishes ill to others, a malicious man is bent on doing ill to them. Malignity goes even further; it not only is bent on doing evil, but loves it for its own sake. One who is malignant must be both malevolent and malicious; but a man may be malicious without being malignant.

Weight, heaviness.- Weight is indefinite; whatever may be weighed has weight, whether large or small. Heaviness is the property of bodies having an unusual degree of weight. Weight lies absolutely in the thing; heaviness refers to an opinion which some one may have in regard to that thing as being the opposite of light. We estimate the weight of things by a certain fixed measure; we estimate the heaviness of things by our feelings.

Pale, pallid, wan.-The absence of color in any degree, where color is a usual quality, constitutes paleness; pallidness is an excess of paleness, and wanness is an unusual degree of pallidness. Fear, or any sudden emotion, may produce paleness; protracted sickness, hunger, and fatigue bring on pallidness; and when these calamities are greatly heightened and aggravated, they produce wanness. Pale is applicable to a great variety of objects, as, a pale face, a pale sky, a pale green, a pale rose, and it may be either natural or acquired, desirable or undesirable. Pallid is applicable to the human face only, and never to that except as implying disease or something out of the course of nature. Wan is applicable to a face having such a degree of pallor as to be ghastly and monstrous.

Avow, acknowledge, confess.— Each of these words imports the affirmation of a fact, but in very different circumstances. To avow a thing, supposes a person to glory in it; to acknowledge, supposes a small degree of faultiness, which the acknowledgment compensates; to confess, supposes a higher degree of crime. An independent legislator avows his opposition to some measure of the executive, and is applauded; a gentleman acknowledges his mistake, and is forgiven; a prisoner confesses the crime with which he is charged, and is punished.

Lucid, luminous.-A thing is lucid, when it is pervaded with light; it is luminous, when it sends forth light to other bodies. A stream may be lucid; the stars are luminous. An argument is lucid, when the reasoning is perfectly clear to the apprehension; it is luminous, when the author not only makes his meaning clear, but pours a flood of light upon the subject.

Only, alone.- Only imports that there is no other of the same kind; alone imports being accompanied by no other. An only child is one who has neither brother nor sister; a child alone is one who is left by itself. "Only virtue makes us happy" means that nothing else can do it. "Virtue alone makes us happy" means that virtue by itself, and unaccompanied with other advantages, is sufficient to do it.

Kill, murder, assassinate.- To kill means simply to deprive of life. A man may kill another by accident, or in self-defence, without the imputation of guilt. To

murder is to kill with malicious forethought and intention. To assassinate is to murder suddenly and by stealth. The sheriff may kill without murdering: the duellist murders, but does not assassinate; the assassin both kills and murders in the meanest and most ignoble manner.

Discover, invent.- We discover what existed before, but was unknown; we invent what is new. Columbus discovered America, Whitney invented the cottongin. Henry discovered the laws of electric induction, Morse invented the telegraph.

Kingly, regal, royal.— Kingly, which is Anglo-Saxon, refers especially to the character of a king; regal, which is Latin, refers more to the office. The former is chiefly used of dispositions, feelings, purposes, and the like; the latter is applied more to external state. We speak of kingly deeds, kingly sentiments, “a kingly heart for enterprises" (Sidney), but of the regal title, regal pomp. Royal, which comes from regal through the French, has a meaning more akin to kingly.

Whole, entire, total, complete.-Whole refers to a thing as made up of parts none of which are wanting; as a whole book, that is, a book with no leaves out. Total has reference to all as taken together and forming a single unit or totality; as, the total amount, the sum total. Entire has no reference to parts at all, but considers a thing as being integer, that is, unbroken or continuous; as, the entire summer. Complete refers to preceding progress ending in the perfect filling out of some plan or purpose; as, a complete victory.

Contagion, infection.- Both words imply the communication of something bad. In the case of contagion, this is done by outward contact or touch; in the case of infection, by invisible influences working inwardly. The plague and smallpox are contagious, various forms of fever are infectious. Bad manners are contagious; bad principles, infectious.

Explicit, express.- Both words convey the idea of clearness in a statement, but the latter is the stronger word of the two. Explicit denotes something set forth so plainly that it cannot well be misunderstood. Express adds a certain degree of force to this clearness. An express promise is not only one in clear, unambiguous words, but one standing out in bold relief, with a binding hold on the conscience. We speak of an explicit statement, but of an express command.

Excite, incite. To excite is to awaken or arouse feelings that were dormant or calm. To incite is to urge forward into acts correspondent to the feelings which have been awakened.

With, by.- Both words imply a connection between some instruments or means, and the agent by whom it is used; but with signifies a more close and immediate connection, by a more remote one. An ancient king of Scotland interrogated his nobles as to the tenure by which they held their lands. The chiefs, starting up, drew their swords, saying, “By these [the remote means] we acquired our lands, and with these [the immediate instrument] we will defend them." We kill a man with a sword; he dies by violence.

Sufficient, enough.-Sufficient refers to actual wants; enough, to the desires, to what we think we want. A man has sufficient, when his wants are supplied; he has enough, when his desires are satisfied. A greedy man never has enough, though he may have a sufficiency. Another distinction is that enough is used of objects of desire only, while sufficient may be spoken of anything which serves a purpose. "Children and animals seldom have enough food." "We should allow sufficient time for whatever is to be done, if we wish it to be done well."

Example, instance.-An instance denotes the single case then standing before us, and does not necessarily imply that there are other cases like it. An example, on the contrary, is, by its very terms, one of a class of like things. It is a sample of a class. An example presupposes and implies a rule, an established course or order of things; an instance simply points out what is true in that particular case, but may not necessarily be true in any other case. "An instance or two of severity in the life of a man who gave every day examples of his kindness of heart, ought not to change our opinions of his character as a whole."

[To the Teacher. By frequent practice in tracing the differences between words seemingly alike, such as those which have now been adduced, a habit will be formed of noticing more particularly the exact meaning of the words we meet with, and thus our own diction will almost unconsciously acquire greater precision. To aid in the formation of this important habit, additional examples are given below of words partially synonymous, but with varying shades of meaning. Each of these sets of words is to be explained and illustrated by the student in the same manner as those already given.]

Exercises in Precision.

1. Abandon, desert, forsake; abettor, accessory, accomplice; abase, debase, degrade; ability, capacity; abash, confuse, confound.

2. Abdicate, resign; abolish, repeal, abrogate, revoke, annul, nullify; abridgment, compendium, epitome, abstract, synopsis; absent, abstracted; absolve, exonerate, acquit.

3. Abuse, invective; accomplish, effect, execute, achieve, perforin; account, narrative, narration, recital; accuse, charge, impeach, arraign; acknowledge, recognize.

4. Acquaintance, familiarity, intimacy; add, join, annex, unite, coalesce; adjacent, adjoining, contiguous; adjourn, prorogue; admonition, reprehension, reproof.

5. Adorn, ornament, decorate, embellish; adulation, flattery, compliment; adversary, enemy, opponent, antagonist; affliction, sorrow, grief, distress; affront, insult, outrage.

6. Agony, anguish, pang; alarm, fright, terror, consternation; alleviate, mitigate, assuage, allay; also, likewise, too; altercation, dispute, wrangle.

7. Amend, emend, correct, reform, rectify; amidst, among; ample, abundant, copious, plenteous; amuse, divert, entertain; ancient, antiquated, antique, obsolete, old.

8. Anger, fury, indignation, ire, resentment, rage, wrath; animosity, enmity; announce, proclaim, promulgate, publish; anticipate, expect; appreciate, estimate, esteem.

9. Arduous, difficult, hard; argue, debate, dispute; artificer, artisan, artist; ascribe, attribute, impute; asperse, calumniate, defame, slander.

10. Assert, maintain, indicate; at last, at length; atrocious, flagitious, flagrant; attack, assail, assault, invade; attempt, endeavor, effort, exertion, trial.

11. Attend, hearken, listen; authentic, genuine; avaricious, covetous, miserly, niggardly, parsimonious, penurious; avenge, revenge; antipathy, aversion, disgust, reluctance, repugnance.

12. Avoid, shun; dread, reverence, veneration; awkward, clumsy, uncouth; adage, aphorism, axiom, maxim; baffle, defeat, frustrate.

13. Banish, exile, expel; bashfulness, diffidence, modesty, shyness; battle, combat, engagement, fight; be, exist; beast, brute.

14. As, because, for, inasmuch as, since; become, grow; ask, beg, request; benevolent, beneficent; bent, bias, inclination, prepossession.

15. Bequeath, devise; beseech, entreat, implore, solicit, supplicate; among, between; blameless, faultless, spotless, stainless; blaze, flame.

16. Burden, load; calculate, compute, count, reckon; calamity, disaster, mischance, misfortune, mishap; call, convoke, summon; can but, can not but.

17. Captious, cavilling, fretful, petulant; anxiety, care, concern, solicitude; cautious, circumspect, wary; cessation, intermission, pause, rest, stop; chasten, chastise, punish.

18. Chief, chieftain, commander, leader; choose, elect, prefer; coerce, compel; comfort, console, solace; commit, consign, intrust. 19. Conceal, disguise, dissemble, hide, secrete; acknowledge, avow, confess; confute, refute; congratulate, felicitate; conquer, overcome, subdue, subjugate, vanquish.

20. Consist in, consist of; constant, continual, perpetual; contemplate, intend, mcditate; contemptible, despicable, pitiful, paltry; convince, persuade.