and the cantons which were formerly based on aristocratic or oligarchical institutions, have fallen before the force of enlightened public opinion. The great curse of Switzerland, however, is the antagonism of its two great churches, and in this will ever consist, as it has hitherto proved, the rock destined to split asunder the friendly feelings so intimate a political relation ought to maintain.

THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM.

THIS small kingdom lies between the latitudes of 49° 27′ and 51° 31' north, and between the longitudes of 2° 27′ and 60 east. The greatest length from N. W. to S. E. is about 195 miles, and the greatest breadth from N. E. to S. W. about 127 miles-area, 12,569 square miles, or about the size of the state of Maryland. Fronting on the German Ocean, it has France on the west and south, Rhine Prussia on the east, and Holland on the north.

The borders of Belgium, on the side of France, are rugged and rather mountainous, being traversed by a continuation of the Ardennes, and other ridges occupying the northern districts of that country. To the north, however, the surface is low, scarcely, if at all, raised above the sea, and is intersected in every direction by numerous rivers and canals, diversified by woods, arable lands, and meadows, and thickly studded with towns and villages. No elevation that can properly be termed a mountain occurs in Belgium, though there is a ridge of considerable height extending between the Meuse and the Moselle, and another between the north bank of the Sambre and the Meuse. As in Holland, the country in the north, along the estuaries and rivers, is protected from inundation by dykes, and along the open sea by sandhills or downs, varying in breadth from one to three miles, and in elevation from 50 to 60 feet. The navigation of the sea is rendered intricate by sandy accumulations, and for large ships even dangerous.

Belgium is one of the best watered countries in Europe, and all its waters run to the North Sea. The SCHELDT enters the kingdom near Tournay, on the French line, flows through Hainault and East Flanders, separating the latter from Antwerp, below which it enters the Dutch territory, and flows through Zealand in several large branches, which are indeed rather arms of the sea than rivers. It is navigable for large ships to the city of Antwerp, and to a considerable distance inland for smaller vessels. Its principal affiuents are:-the Dender; the Ruppel, formed by the Dyle, Senne and two Nethes; and the Haine on the right and the Lys on the left. The MEUSE or Maas enters Belgium below Givet, and flows through Namur and Liege, and thence through South Holland to the sea. Its affluents are the Semoy, Lesse, Ourthe and Roer from the right, and the Sambre from the left.

The climate of Belgium is exceedingly damp-less so, however, than that of Holland. In this respect it varies in accordance with the topography of the country, and in the high regions the country enjoys what may be termed a mild climate. There are several extensive forests in which the oak, the ash, and the beech abound; and from the humidity, the pastures are rich and support luxuriantly the domestic animals of the farms. Some wine is produced, but the vine is not adapted to the soil; fruit trees are rare, and wheat succeeds with difficulty; but great advantage is derived from the cultivation

of rye and oats, and particularly of the potatoe. But a small portion of the territory is incapable of cultivation, viz: about 300,000 acres. Of the remainder, about 1,000,000 acres are covered with woods, 50,000 acres with towns and villages; 250,000 acres with rivers, canals and roads; and between five and six millions are under various crops or used as pastures. The horse of Belgium is a dull animal, and fit only for draught—it is a veritable Dutchman, slow and easy, but strong and long-winded. The other domestic animals are remarkably fine conditioned, which is owing to the rich pasture on which they feed. Tobacco, hemp, madder, and particularly flax, which is a staple production of the country, succeed well, but in Flanders find the most congenial soil. Flanders is destitute of forests, but supplies turf in abundance, which is used as a fuel by the inhabitants. Bee-culture is extensively carried on in Limburg.

In the high regions of the south-east the geological characters most developed are red sand-stone and lime-stone, containing organic remains over subtrata of granite, quartz and slaty schist. The same strata to the northwest contain vast beds of anthracite, especially around Namur. Porphyry and quartz, calcareous earth, pit-coal and schist, and argillaceous earth, distinguish the province of Hainault, while Flanders and northern Brabant consist chiefly of horizontal layers of clays, and peat surface, the latter of which supplies a cheap fuel. Various land and marine animals are embedded in these, a sufficient proof that at a comparatively recent period the whole low country has been submerged. The islands at the mouth of the rivers seem to be the result of alluvial deposits. The great coal regions of Belgium is spread over a great portion of the centre and west of the kingdom. The number of beds has been stated by M. Dumont at eighty-three. Iron mines are also numerous, particularly in the region between the Sambre and Meuse. Copper, lead, zinc, manganese, pyrites, calamine, sulphur and alum are found in great abundance through all the country south of Brabant. Namur is also rich in porcelain, potter's and pipe clays, and a species of sand adapted for the manufacture of crystal. The clays of Flanders are coarse but well suited for tiles, brick, pottery and pipes. Excellent millstones, grind-stones, and whet-stones are supplied from the quarries of Liege and Luxemburg. The mineral springs of Spa, near Liege; those of Chaudfontaine, in the same neighborhood; of Morimont, near Namur, and at Tongres, near Maestricht, are the most celebrated in Belgium.

The Belgians are of mixed origin, and spring from the Germanic and Græco-Latin families. To the former belong the proper Belgians or Netherlanders, who speak the Flemish tongue, and a small number of German Dutch, mostly in Limburg and Luxemburg; and the latter spring from Walloons who inhabit the southern parts of the kingdom, and speak Franco-Flemish and the Vallon, two dialects of the French language. The following table will exhibit the extent and relative population of each of the provinces into which the country is divided:

The distribution of the population as exhibited in the table is sufficiently indicative of the leading pursuits of the several provinces. In East and West Flanders, maritime, as also considerable manufacturing interests, congregate large numbers; in the central provinces, and where manufactures are mostly prosecuted, the same average ratio is maintained. South of the Meuse, however, witnesses a great falling off-here the country is almost entirely devoted to agriculture. Of the whole population about two sevenths inhabit cities and towns, and the remainder is scattered over the rural districts; in the province of Antwerp the two classes are about equal in number.

About nineteen twentieths of the Belgians are Roman Catholics, and the church of Rome is established by law. The clergy are very numerous and influential, and, as a general thing, the people are ignorant, bigotted and superstitious. All other religions are tolerated, yet there are not 10,000 Protestants in the whole kingdom. The church is under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Malines, and the five bishops of Bruges, Ghent, Liege, Namur and Tournay. The archbishop's salary is about $20,000 per annum, and those of the bishops vary from $11,000 to $15,000. The cures or parish priests are divided into three classes; of the first class there are 81, of the second 165, and of the inferior clergy, 4,422, whose salaries vary from $40 to $150 per annum. All salaries are paid out of the public treasury. Education is said to have retrograded since the revolution. The institutions are of three grades: elementary schools, colleges and Universities. By the Belgic constitution, education ceased to be compulsory; and the government has no control over it, except as regards the few schools paid by the state; the rest is left to individual enterprise, or the caprice of the communes. At least one-third of the rising generation are absolutely without any regular instruction. Luxemburg and Namur are the best educated provinces, and Flanders and Liege the two in which education is most neglected. Belgium, when compared with other countries in respect of the diffusion of instruction, stands just below Austria, and is merely above England. It is several degrees above France and Ireland, but falls very far short of Holland, Switzerland, Prussia, Bavaria, Scotland and the United States. "Athenees" or colleges are established in all the large towns. Besides these there are other colleges for general education, under the exclusive management of the clergy. The Jesuits have establishments of this kind at Brussels, Namur, Alost and Ghent. These institutions are intended to compete with the " Athenees," and are conducted with more marked religious bias. They are, however, distinct from the Theological Seminaries established in each diocese for the education of the priesthood. Two of the universities are supported by the state, at Liege and Ghent; one was founded by the clergy at Louvain, and is supported by the church; and the university of Brussels is supported by a private association. The freedom of university education is almost as great as that of the schools. Degrees, however, can only be conferred by the central body called "Le jury d'examen," at Brussels, composed of members of the several universities, from whom the jury, which assigns the honors, is selected.

Belgium became a kingdom in 1831, and the constitution, on which it is based, vests the sovereignty in Leopold of Saxe Coburg and his heirs in perpetuity. The kingly power, however, is very limited. The legislature is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies; 45,000-one deputy. The senators are elected for eight years and the deputies for four years, by

citizens paying direct tax. One half the deputies is renewed every two and half the senators every four years. The chambers assemble annually on the second Friday in November, but the king has the right to convoke, adjourn or dissolve them at will, and in case of dissolution, a new election of the whole is required. The executive is vested in the king, assisted by six responsible ministers. The king's pay is fixed at 110,053 sterling, besides the use of the royal palaces. The judicial system is modelled after that of France.

The sources of public revenue are the land-tax, personal-tax, patents, rents of mines, customs, excise, stamps, domains, forests, &c.; tolls, postages, canals, interests, &c., &c. The whole amounts to about 114,000,000 francs annually. About 19,000,000 francs are expended in paying interest on the national debt, which amounts to about £31,087,200 sterling.

The army is composed of one picked regiment of five battalions; 12 regiments of infantry of the line; 3 regiments of foot chasseurs ; 2 regiments of horse chasseurs; 2 regiments of lancers; 2 regiments of cuirassiers; I regiment of guides; and 4 regiments of artillery, forming 43 batteries, besides artillery train, pontooneers, &c.—the whole amounting to about 90,000 effective men.

This country, during the 17th and 18th centuries, having been the principal battle-field of Europe, most of the towns were fortified to such an extent, that it may be said to have bristled with fortresses of the first rank. Most of these, however, have been demolished, or allowed to fall into decay. The principal fortresses now remaining are-Namur, Tournay, and Charleroi, the citadels of Antwerp, Ghent, and Liege, and the sea-port towns of Nieuport and Ostend.

Belgium, in reference to its size, is one of the most important manufacturing states of Europe. It has long been distinguished for its genius and industry. The laces of Brussels, Mechlin, &c., the cloths of Brabant, Flanders, and Hainault, the printed cottons of Ghent and Brussels, the carpets and pottery of Tournay, the papers of Liege, the arms and cutlery of Liege, Namur, and Charleroi; the gold and silver work of Ghent, Brus sels, and Antwerp; the iron, steel, and brass articles of Namur and Liege; the steam-engines of Seraing, are all well known to the commercial world. The minor manufactures are also extensive, and, together with the above, occupy at least one-fifth of the male population. Mining operations are chiefly undertaken in Liege, Namur, Hainault, and Luxemburg. There are considerable breweries at Brussels and Louvain, and sugar refineries at Ghent and its neighborhood, but there are no large distilling establishments in any of the provinces.

With respect to agriculturul industry, Belgium has long been distinguished for productiveness and variety, and the Flemish system of farming has been noticed and recommended for its excellence. The industry of the Flemings has, indeed, within 200 years, converted a tract of land, originally a sandy and barren heath, into a rich and beautiful garden; and the crops of wheat and of oats are considerably larger than in the best cultivated parts of England. Nine-elevenths of the soil is under actual cultivation, and about twice the quantity of corn required for home consumption is annually produced. The cultivators are in tolerably easy circumstances, and this flourishing state of agriculture operates favorably upon manufacturing industry, every branch of which is in full activity. Flax, raised principally in Flanders, Brabant, and Hainault, is one of the principal products, and brings a

high price in foreign markets, on account of its excellent quality. Flanders produces this staple to the value of £1,600,000 annually. The linen of Flanders is also held in high esteem.

The coal mines of Hainault alone produce more than those of the whole of France, and the annual quantity raised in Belgium exceeds 4,000,000 chaldrons. The iron mines were never worked more extensively than at the present time; more than 200,000 tons of iron are annually founded. The cloth manufactures employ 40,000 persons, and a capital of £3,500,000 sterling. In the linen mills 400,000 persons are employed, and the value of the annual product is estimated at £4,500,000 sterling. The cotton interests are in a like flourishing condition, and, notwithstanding the loss of the Dutch colonial markets, have steadily improved since 1830, and now represent a capital of five or six millions. The lace and silk manufactures are also in a thriving condition.

The revolution of 1830 impaired, in no inconsiderable degree, the commerce of the nation; but since that period this great interest has revived, and already eclipses in extent its former range. The principal exports are the productions of its flourishing agriculture, numerous manufactures, and mineral products. The imports consist of colonial produce, and the wines and fruits of southern Europe. The trade between this country and the United States is considerable, and is gradually increasing, as may be seen from the following figures, which represent different periods:

The amount of tonnage employed in this trade in 1846, was entered United States ports, 12,714 American, and 5,823 foreign total, 18,537cleared, 23,375 American, and 6,527 foreign: total, 29,902. The principal commercial towns in the kingdom are-Brussels, Ghent, Liege, Namur, Tournay, Ypres, Mons, Louvain, Verviers, and Malines or Mechlin. The seaport towns are Antwerp, Ostend, Burges, and Nieuport. Belgium possesses several large banking establishments, which are of great service to the manufactures and commerce of the country.

The prosperity of Belgium is promoted, as well as indicated by its excellent system of railroads and other means of intercommunion and connection with other nations. The railroads are constructed upon better principles, and are better managed than in any other country. The lines of the first and second classes are made and upheld by the state; provincialroads by the provinces; and the smaller by-roads by the communes. Sometime after the accession of Leopold, he caused the whole country to be surveyed, the necessary plans and estimates formed, and on 1st May, 1834, a law was passed, according to which a system of railroads was to be introduced throughout the kingdom, and executed at the public expense; and so rapid has the work been progressed with, that at the present day the whole territory is traversed by lines, which also extend into other states, and by which Paris and all the large towns of France are connected with those of Belgium. At the end of 1838 two hundred and fifty-nine miles had been opened, and at the end of 1847 about 548 miles. The Great Northern Railway, which unites Paris and Brussels, is said to be the most gigantic VOL. II.

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