the crown lands, is 513,888 dollars. Hanover is one of the heaviest taxed countries in Germany.

The contingent of Hanover to the confederate army is 13,050 men, belonging to the 10th division; but the whole army consists of above 21,200, and bears a proportion to the population as 1 in 83. There are ten garrison towns; a cannon foundery at Hanover, and a manufactory of small arms at Hertzberg. The expense of maintaining this army is about 1,500,000 dollars a year.

Hanover is formed out of the several duchies formerly belonging to the junior branches of the House of Brunswick. The reigning family is descended from the Marquis d'Este in the 11th century, whose issue received the surname of Guelph. The history of Hanover for the two centuries before the Lutheran reformation presents little interest, except in the connection of its powers with the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, in the 14th century; little or nothing is known of its internal history. The Reformation numbered the princes of Brunswick among its most zealous supporters, and their subjects, during the thirty years' war, warmly seconded their anti-Roman efforts. Ernest Augustus, a prince of Brunswick, married Sophia, the grand-daughter of James I. of England, and on this marriage was founded the claim of the elder branch of that house to the English crown, acknowledged by Parliament in 1701. George Louis was the issue, who became King of England in 1714; from which time till the death of William IV., both England and Hanover have had the same sovereign. The Salic law then conferred the crown on Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, fifth, but eldest surviving son of George III. The territory has been increased from time to time by the conquest or purchase of many adjoining districts; Bremenverden and Wildeshausen in 1719; the Hadeln-land in 1731, &c. George III. added Hohenstein and the bishopric of Osnabrück, which, by the treaty of Westphalia, was held by his house as a secularized bishopric, alternately with a Roman Catholic prelate.

In 1804 Prussia took possession of Hanover, but ceded it in the same year to France, and in 1808 it became a part of the kingdom of Westphalia. At the peace of 1813, it reverted to the king of England, and was much enlarged by the stipulations of the treaty of Vienna, and erected into a kingdom. On the definitive settlement of the kingdom the district of Lauenburg was ceded by Hanover, which obtained in return the bishopric of Hildesheim, the Principality of East Friesland, the districts of Lingen, Harlingen, &c. On the extinction of male heirs of the line of Hanover the Dukes of Brunswick will succeed to the sovereignty. In 1848, the king conceded many valuable rights to his subjects, and abolished several odious restrictions and disabilities.

OLDENBURG.

The principal part of the GRAND DUCHY OF OLDENBURG is situated to the left of the Weser, and is surrounded by the territory of Hanover, on all sides but the north, where it borders on the North Sea. It is generally a low country, but some heights, extending along the coast, protect it from the encroachments of the waters. The land on the banks is rich and fruitful, but the rest of the country is sandy and unproductive.

The Grand Duke also possesses the Principality of Lubeck, consisting of several parcels of land in Holstein, to the northward of the city of Lu

beck; and the Principality of Birkenfeld, to the westward of the Rhine, adjoining the Coburg and Homburg allotments.

Oldenburg, upon the Hunte, is the capital of the state. Some manufactures and considerable trade are carried on. It contains several public institutions, and a museum of antiquities. Population, 8,000. Eutin, in Lubeck, situated on a lake of the same name, abounding in fish, has 2,700 inhabitants; and Birkenfeld, on the Nahe, has a population of 1,700. Oberstein, also on the Nahe, has 1,500 inhabitants, who manufacture and export a great quantity of jewels and precious stones: such as agates, chalcedony, cornelians, jaspers, and lapis-lazuli, made into ear-rings, snuff-boxes, seals, bracelets, and necklaces.

KNIPHAUSEN.

The LORDSHIP OF KNIPHAUSEN is a small territory in the north part of Oldenburg, and forms one of the sovereign states of the confederation, but without a vote in the Diet; its contingent being joined with that of the surrounding state. It belongs to the Dutch family of Bentinck, who have also large possessions in Holland.

Kniphausen, a castle, with about 50 inhabitants, is the Metropolis; but the prince usually resides at Varel.

MECHLENburg.

The PRINCIPALITIES OF MECHLENBURG, possessed by one of the most ancient families of Europe, comprise:-1. The GRAND DUCHY OF MECHLENBURG-SCHWERIN; and, 2. The GRAND DUCHY OF Mechlenburg-Strelitz. The possessions of the Mechlenburg princes are bounded on the south by Hanover and Brandenburg; on the east by Pomerania; on the west by Lubeck and Lunenburg; and on the north by the Baltic Sea. MechlenburgStrelitz is a very small state, nearly six-sevenths of the whole belonging to Schwerin. The country consists of a large sandy plain, interspersed with forests and lakes, the latter of which are numerous, particularly in the neighborhood of Strelitz.

Schwerin, with 3,000 inhabitants, and Strelitz, with 6,000, are the respective capitals. The latter is built in the form of a star, with eight rays or streets, terminating at a common centre; and is noted for its fine collection of Sclavonic antiquities.

Ratzeburg, at the western extremity of Mechlenburg, belongs partly to Strelitz and partly to Denmark.

The family of Mechlenburg has been divided into two branches since the middle of the 17th century. The heads of both, however, take the title of Grand Duke, with the addition of the name of their respective

states.

LICHTENSTEIN.

The PRINCIPALITY OF LICHTENSTEIN is a very small territory, lying along the right bank of the Rhine, above the Boden-see. It consists of the two lordships of Vadutz and Shellenberg.

Lichtenstein, formerly called Vadutz, is the capital, and only town, with about 1,000 inhabitants. The Prince's residence is at Vienna, or at his Castle of Troppau, in Silesia.

1

HANSE-TOWNS.

The HANSE-TOWNS, or free cities of Germany, now number only four, viz.: LUBECK, FRANKFORT, BREMEN, and HAMBURG. Formerly the Hauseatic League comprised nearly all the large cities, and extended into other

countries.

LUBECK is built upon a hill, at the confluence of the rivers Wakenitz and Trave, to the east of Holstein. It is very much fallen from its ancient importance, but still possesses a considerable transit trade, and is the seat of the Supreme Court of Appeals for the four free cities. Its territory occupies about 150 square miles, and contains a population of 48,000; of which one-half resides in the city. Travemund, on the Baltic, is its shipping port. Regular steamboat communication is established between it and St. Petersburg, and other places.

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MEYN occupies 90 square miles of territory, and contains 60,000 or 70,000 inhabitants. The city is a fine old town on the right bank of the Meyn, 20 miles east of its confluence with the Rhine. It is the capital of the German Confederation and residence of the Vicar or chief executive of the empire. The interior of the city has of late years undergone great improvements: the fortifications have been levelled, and their site converted into promenades. The suburbs are adorned with splendid villas; and the river is lined with capacious open quays, which, in some places, are as highly ornamented as those of the Seine at Paris. Frankfort enjoys considerable trade, and its two annual fairs are still much frequented. It has long formed a favorite centre of the banking transactions of Germany; and it is proposed to establish in Frankfort a central bank for all Germany. The town house contains the hall in which the emperor used to be elected by the delegates of the electors; and the original of the famous charter called the Golden Rule, granted by Charles IV. in 1355, to regulate the mode of electing the emperor, and the rights and duties of the provinces and states of the empire, is still preserved entire. The emperors, after election, used to make their public entry into Frankfort, and were crowned in the Domkirk, or cathedral, which still exists. Population about 40,000, including 5,000 Jews. The executive government of the city is invested in a senate of 42 members, from whom are chosen every two years, two burgomasters. The legislative assembly is composed of 85 citizens, elected annually, and a permanent commission of 60 members superintends the finances of the state. The Jews, though enjoying otherwise equality with Christians, cannot vote at elections, or hold any public office. Water from the mountains is copiously supplied to the city through a subterraneous aqueduct.

HAMBURG, the greatest commercial city in Germany, lies on the right bank of the Elbe, 70 miles from the sea. The old town is a dirty, gloomy place, but the new town presents a very different appearance. None of the public buildings, however, are remarkable. The Stadt-Haus is a large and heavy structure; and the Borsenhall, bank, admiralty, though well suited for their respective purposes, exhibit nothing striking in their architecture. The finest church is that of St. Michael, which has a tower 460 feet high. The river, opposite the city, is divided into several channels, with intervening islands; communication is kept up by steam ferries. The government is vested in a senate of 36 members, four of whom are burgomasters; four syndics, one prothonotary, one keeper of the records, and two

secretaries—all chosen by the citizens, who are formed for this purpose into five orders or classes. Justice is dispensed by three graduated courts-appeal lying from the lowest to the higher. The revenue is derived from imports, taxes, and a light customs' duty, and amounts annually to about $750,000. The import trade of Hamburg is chiefly carried on by foreign vessels, and from its situation at the mouth of a navigable river of 500 miles, the city enjoys prodigious inland trade, and is necessarily the entrepôt for a great part of Eastern Prussia, Saxony and other adjacent states. Manufactures of various kinds also employ the citizens. Schools and charitable institutions are well supported; and the theatres, of which there are both German and French, provide ample means for intellectual recreation. Since the expulsion of the French, in 1814, Hamburg has more than doubled its population, which is now about 150,000. The burgesses are divided into two classes the one class, the hereditary or active burghers, enjoy certain rights and privileges, while the others are restricted to certain prescribed branches of industry, and are subject to the payment of a tax. Strangers pay higher duties than the burghers, and cannot hold real estate in their own name. Jews are allowed to possess houses in certain quarters, but enjoy none of the rights of citizenship. Hamburg owes its independence to the mutual jealousy of its neighbors, the kings of Denmark and Prussia neither of whom will consent to the other getting so rich a prize, though they both covet it. Cuxhaven, with 800 inhabitants, and Ritzebuttel with 1,600, are situated in a small territory belonging to Hamburg, on the sea-coast, outside the mouth of the Elbe. The former is noted for sea-bathing, its lighthouse, and its harbor, from which steamships and packets sail regularly to Harwich, Amsterdam, London, and other places.

BREMEN, the ancient capital of the Hanseatic League, is situated at the confluence of the Wumme with the Weser, about 50 miles from the sea. It consists of an old and a new town, on opposite sides of the Weser: the former is gloomy and Dutch; but the latter contains some elegant buildings. The Dom-kirk, or cathedral, is reserved for the Lutherans, and the Calvinists, who form more than two-thirds of the population, have four parish churches. The government of the state is vested in a supreme council, the members of which are all Calvinists-the Lutherans being excluded not only from the council, but also from civic employments. This council governs the state, regulates commercial affairs, and even dispenses justice; but matters of great importance are referred to a council of elders and of the principal citizens, who thus form a kind of legislative assembly. Bremen has several flourishing manufactures of linens, cloths, hats, worsted stockings, tobacco, oil and glass. It is also noted for its beer, and its sugarrefineries, but its wealth and importance depend more on its immense commerce than on its manufacturing industry. Next to Hamburg it is the greatest entrepôt of German trade. In the small territory belonging to the town, there are the burgh of Vegesack, which forms the harbor of Bremen, and 35 villages; but large vessels stop at Braacke, about halfway down the Weser. The population of the town is about 42,000, and of the state 60,000. The citizens, some few years ago, purchased from the king of Hanover a piece of ground about three miles in circuit, 38 miles below Bremen, on which they have constructed Bremenhafen, already a solidly built and flourishing town. Here the Weser is so deep that the largest ships may reach this new port in safety. Bremenhafen is the German depôt of the United States' Ocean Mail Steam-ships, which sail from New-York monthly, touching at Southampton, both coming and going.

Uncertainty overclouds the early periods of German history, and fable too often supplies the place of authentic narrative. All that we know is, that it was peopled in very remote times, but nothing is more problematical than the origin of the inhabitants and the country whence they came. Ancient authors confound them under the several names of Celts, Scythians, and Celto-Scythians. However this may be, we learn from Tacitus that the ancient Germans were noble, magnanimous, and beneficent, employing their arms rather to repel invasion than to spread into other countries by conquest. Inspired with a natural love of liberty, they nobly withstood the Roman power, even in its greatest height. At this period, the Germans were formed into a vast number of small communities under chiefs, but in other respects united for mutual defence and protection. Nothing could be more detestable to this people than to view the aggressions of Rome, and hence arose wars between them and the Romans. The result was the annexation of a great portion of Germany as a Roman province. The Germans, however, soon regained their liberty, and made ample reprisals on their conquerors. In the sixth century Germany was invaded by the Franks, whose power gradually increased until the time of Charlemagne, who completed the conquest in 800, and added it to his empire. His successors,

however, did not long enjoy the honor of the throne founded by their great ancestor, for in 888 the states assumed their original independence, and placed the imperial crown on the head of Arnolph, king of Bohemia; and from this period to 1806, Germany was considered as an elective monarchy. The princes of Saxony, Franconia, and Suabia, have successively swayed the imperial sceptre, but in 1440 it passed to the house of Hapsburg, with which it reposed till 1806, except for a short period after the death of Charles VI., when the Duke of Bavaria was placed on the throne.

Prior to the dissolution of the empire in 1806, Germany was parcelled out among nearly 300 sovereign princes or principalities, including in that number 50 free imperial cities, and these were, for certain purposes, arranged into NINE ČIRCLES, viz.: Suabia, Bavaria and Austria, in the south; Franconia in the centre; the Upper Rhine and the Lower Rhine lying on both sides of that river, and extending eastward to the Weser; and Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Upper Saxony, in the north. Besides these, Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia were included in the limits of the empire, but as they belonged exclusively to the emperor himself, they were not included in any of the administrative circles, which were established for the benefit and regulation of the minor princes. The electors, or princes, who had the privilege of electing the kaiser, or feudal chief of the empire, were the three archbishops of Mainz, Treves, and Cologne; the king of Bohemia; the duke of Bavaria; the pfalzgraf, or count palatine. of the Rhine; the duke of Saxony; the margrave of Brandenburg; the duke of Brunswick-Luneburg (Hanover); and the landgrave of HessenCassel. The electoral or princely dignity of the archbishops has been abolished. The king of Bohemia now takes the title of Emperor of Austria; the king of Bavaria represents the elector and also the pfalzgraf of the Rhine; the elector of Saxony is now king; the margrave of Brandenburg is king of Prussia; the duke of Brunswick-Luneburg is king of Hanover, and the landgrave of Hessen-Cassel remains landgrave still, but retains his title of elector, though the privilege of that dignity no longer exists.

The other sovereign states were nearly all swept away by the wars of the French Revolution, some of them were entirely abolished; the ecclesiastical principalities were secularized; and all the imperial free towns, except four,