and noted for their manufactures and commerce. SPEZZIA, a small town, is beautifully situated at the head of the fine gulf to which it gives its name. CAGOLETTO, a small village, claims the honor of being the birth-place of Columbus, and his house is still shown.

CHAMBERY, the capital of Savoy, is a small archiepiscopal city, in a fertile and well cultivated plain on the great road from Lyon to Mont Cenis. The streets are gloomy and crowded, and none of the public buildings are worthy of notice. A railway passes through the town. CHAMOUNY, a priory and hamlet, 40 miles south-east of Geneva, 3,463 feet above the level of the sea, is situated in a secluded valley 12 miles long and one in width, surrounded by glaciers and lofty mountains, among which rises Mont Blanc, the "monarch of mountains," the highest of the Alps. It is from Chamouny that the ascent of Mont Blanc is usually made.

The ISLAND OF SARDINIA, the largest in the Mediterranean, is divided into ten provinces, and contains about 400 towns and villages. It is very productive, and maintains a considerable commerce. The government is entrusted to a viceroy, assisted by a Stamenti or Parliament, which consists of three estates: the first or ecclesiastical, comprises the bishops, abbots and chapters; the second or military, comprises the nobles; and the third or royal, is formed by the councillors of the seven cities. Their powers are limited to raising taxes, and every three years a junta of deputies of the three orders grants to the government certain contributions or donativi, which the king demands by circular letters.

CAGLIARI, the capital of the island, situated in a deep bay on the south shore, is a large, but ill-built, ill-paved and crowded town, and has considerable trade. It is also the see of an archbishop, and possesses a university which is well attended. SASSARI, on the north-west, is a fine town, with a university and 1,800 inhabitants.

Sardinia contains numerous remains of antiquity, the most remarkable of which are the "Nurages," which are conical towers, constructed of large cubic stones without cement. The largest are from 50 to 60 feet high and 90 in diameter. The interior is divided into three dark chambers, one above the other, and communicating by a spiral staircase. Under several of them burial places and subterraneous passages have been discovered. In some instances an outer wall of the same construction, 10 feet high, encloses the terrace on which the Nurage is built, with a circuit of 130 feet. Of these buildings more than 600 are scattered over the island.— (Foreign Quart. Rev. xii. 252.) Sardinia came into the possession of the Duke of Savoy in 1719, with the title of king by grant from the great powers of Europe, in exchange for Sicily, which he had received as a new kingdom at the peace of Utrecht.

The nucleus of the Sardinian monarchy was the small Alpine country of Savoy. This state dates from 1016, from which period it was governed by its own counts. In 1050 extensive districts in Piedmont were acquired by marriage; and in 1399 Nice, and in 1418 the whole of Piedmont, were added. The sovereigns of Savoy and Piedmont were long celebrated for their ability, and the skill with which they preserved and extended their limited dominions, notwithstanding the difficulty of their position in the immediate Vicinity of the great powers of Europe. This territory was recognised as a separate kingdom at the peace of Utrecht in 1713. Sicily was then added to the Piedmontese dominion, but in 1719 it was exchanged for the island of Sardinia. Genoa and its territory, Monaco, &c., were annexed to the

Sardinian crown at the peace of 1815. The present king of Sardinia has been very liberal in his policy, but at the same time exhibits to the world that the encroaching genius of his ancestors still lives in their representative. The king aims at the subduction of Lombardy and Venice, and is ambitious of the crown of United Italy. His son has been invited to assume the crown of Sicily, one of the ancient possessions of the house of Savoy.

The sovereign takes the title of King of Sardinia and Cypress, Duke of Savoy, Piedmont and Genoa, with a long string of inferior titles; and the Prince Royal is styled Duke of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont.

THE LOMBARDO-VENETIAN KINGDOM.
(AUSTRIAN ITALY.)

THIS kingdom occupies the north-eastern part of the plain of Lombardy, and some adjacent territories. It now forms an integral portion of the Austrian Empire, under the government of a viceroy; and is divided, for administrative purposes, into the two governments of "Milan," or the Lombard Provinces, and "Venice," or the Venetian Provinces; each of which is subdivided into delegations. In the capital of each delegation. is a court of first instance, for civil and criminal business; in Milan and Venice are courts of appeal, and at Verona a high court of revision, for the whole kingdom. The delegations of each sub-government are stated in the annexed:

Grand Total........ 18,063.... 4,671,000....259.5

MILAN (Milano, Meyland,) the capital of Lombardy, lies on the river Olono, in the centre of a large plain, noted for its beauty and richness. It contains some spacious streets, but generally they are narrow, irregular and filthy. Its palaces and elegant mansions, however, redeem it from insignificance, and its public edifices rank among the most massive and gorgeous of any European city. It is intersected by three navigable canals, one of

which extends to Pavia. The city is surrounded by broad ramparts, planted with trees, but the principal attraction is the Duomo or Cathedral, a very large building of the mixed Gothic, of white marble, and profusely adorned with pinnacles and statues. This structure was commenced in 1385, by the first duke of Milan, and is yet unfinished, although Napoleon and the emperors of Austria expended large sums for the purpose. It measures 486 feet long, and 298 broad, and to the top of the cupola 258 feet; but it has neither domes nor towers to relieve its massiveness. In a fine subterranean chapel, which is sumptuously adorned, rests the body of San Carlo Borromeo, in a crystal sarcophagus, ornamented with silver gilding. The church of St. Ambrose, the oldest in Milan, is an assemblage of every order of architecture, from the days of Theodosius, who did penance before its gates. Among the other public buildings may be mentioned, the archiepiscopal palaces; the theatre" del Scala," one of the largest in Europe; the lazzaretto and great hospital (2,200 beds ;) the several scientific institutions; and the magnificent triumphal arch, which serves as the terminus of the road of the Simplin. Milan is the residence of the Viceroy of Lombardy and the see of an archbishop, and from its favorable situation it has become the general entrepôt of the trade of northern Italy. Its commerce is very extensive, and in printing and book-selling it rivals Venice, Turin, and Florence. Milan contains a population of 160,000, of which the priesthood and other attachés of the church form no inconsiderable part.

There are several other cities in the Milanese, which are important chiefly from their historical connection. MONZA, near Milan, is noted as the place where Charlemagne received the iron crown of the Lombard Kings, which is still preserved in the cathedral. It contains also a fine palace of the Viceroy and a very rich botanic garden. Coмo, on the lake of the same name, has flourishing manufactures and a large cathedral. LECCO and DONGO are busy commercial towns. SONDRIO, on the Adda, is a vast town, and BORMIO (Worms) is noted for the baths of St. Martin in its vicinity, and its connection with the great military road over Monte Stelvio, or the Stilfersjoch, which commences at these baths, and reaches the elevation of 9,232 feet above the level of the sea. CHIAVENNA (Cleves,) upon the Maira, carries on a considerable trade along the great roads with which it is connected. PAVIA, near the left bank of the Ticino, is more remarkable for its antiquity and its historical celebrity as the capital of the Lombard Kings, than from its present importance. It has an excellent university, &c. Population, 24,000. LoDi, on the right bank of the Adda, over which there is an ancient bridge, memorable for the "terrible passage" effected by Bonaparte in 1796. The citizens manufacture pottery and silk, and carry on a large trade in Parmesan cheese, which is all made in the surrounding district. Population, 16,000. BERGAMO has 3,000 inhabitants, and is chiefly engaged in silk manufactures and general trade. Its annual fair, held in August, is one of the best attended in Italy. BRESCIA, with 35,000 inhabitants, manufactures cutlery, arms and silk. CREMONA is a large city on the left bank of the Po. It is chiefly remarkable for its fiddle manufactories. Its cathedral is a most magnificent structure. MANTUA is situated in the middle of a lake formed by the Mincio, and connected with the mainland by causeways. It is one of the principal fortresses in Europe. Population, 30,000. In the vicinity are-the magnificent Gothic church of "Santa Maria delle Grazie," on the lake, almost entirely covered with votive tablets, and visited annually by as many as from 80,000 to 100,000 pilgrims; "Pietole," a fort on the right bank of the Mincio, constructed to

maintain the inundation which surrounds Mantua and makes it inaccessible, except at four points, defended by formidable batteries, viz: St. George's Bridge, the Citadel, the Pradella gate, and the Port of Pietole, which is supposed to be the site of "Andes," the birth place of Virgil; and "Peschiera," a fortress on the Mincio, at the outlet of the lake Garda.

VENEZIA (Venedig, Venise, Venice,) the capital of the kingdom of Venice, is built upon a cluster of islands in the midst of a salt lagune, or shallow lake, separated from the sea by a long strip of firm sand, through which there are several openings for the tide. Venice is one of the most ancient and most magnificent cities in Europe, though its streets are very narrow and in some cases scarcely wide enough for a foot passenger. The chief thoroughfares, however, are its canals, which traverse it in every direction. The principal canal, 300 feet wide, extends through the centre of the city in a long curve line, and is crossed near the middle of its course by the "Ponte di Rialto," a fine marble structure of one arch. In the midst of this labyrinth of canals and narrow streets are numerous plazzas or open areas, almost every one of which is adorned with a church or a palace. The finest of these is the "Piazza de San Marco," surrounded with elegant buildings, and containing at its eastern extremity the metropolitan church. of San Marco, a singular but splendid combination of Gothic and Saracen architecture. Adjoining the church is the ancient palace of the Doges, the prisons, and other public buildings of the late republic of Venice. The arsenal is likewise a spacious structure, placed on an island three miles in circumference, and strongly fortified; it is now the head quarters of the Austrian navy, and communicates with the Adriatic by a deep channel through the lagune. Venice is seven miles in circumference, and is situated about four miles from Fusina, the principal landing place on the mainland. The city is well supplied with necessaries and even luxuries, though it possesses naturally neither soil nor fresh water. The houses are built on spiles driven deep in the mud. It has now several railway communications with other cities, &c. The prosperity which Venice enoyed as a republic rapidly declined after 1797; but in 1830 it was declared a free port, since which period, though in no remarkable degree, its commerce has gradually revived; and if the system of railways projected be executed, Venice must necessarily become a central depôt for the trade of Switzerland and north eastern Italy generally. The population is about 110,000. Venice is the residence of a Catholic patriarch, an Armenian Bishop, and a Greek Bishop; and the Viceroy of Lombardy usually spends the winter here. In the vicinity there are a number of old towns and villages, chiefly remarkable, however, in their historical connection, and of little modern importance. PADUA, 22 miles west by south of Venice. is a large and busy commercial city. Its university has a world-wide celebrity, and ranks as one of the first in Europe. VICENZA has many beautiful buildings, but is chiefly noted for its industrious population, which is largely engaged in the silk manufactures. VERONA, on the Adige, is adorned with many fine ancient and modern buildings, among which may be mentioned a Roman amphitheatre still perfect. Placed near the gorges of the Tyrol, and the defile of the Adige, and commanding that river by its four stone bridges; and situated between the gorges of the Chiusa and the heights of Caldiero, and supported by the fortresses of Mantua, Peschiera, and Legnano, Verona has always been a most important military position, and its proper fortification has claimed unremitting attention on the part of the Austrians. It

VOL. II.

24

is also noted for its fine dyeing establishments; and carries on a great trade in silk thread, both for sewing and weaving, which is spun by a great number of water mills. ROVIGO, formerly the capital of Polesina, is an ancient city, celebrated, in the palmy days of ancient Rome, for its commerce and manufactures. TREVISO, BELLUNO, UDINO, &c., are important cities.

The greater part of this portion of Italy, after the fall of the Western Empire, was successively possessed by the Heruli, Ostrogoths, Greeks, and Lombards. In 774, Charlemagne annexed it to the empire of the Franks. From 888 it generally belonged to the Germans, until the erection of the Republic of Milan, in 1150. In 1395, it became a Duchy, and in 1535, came into the possession of the Emperor Charles V. After the wars of the Spanish succession Mantua and Milan were assigned to Austria, to which they have since belonged, with the exception of the short time they formed a part of the Cisalpine Republic and French Empire. Venice and its territory, which had existed as an aristocratic republic from the 7th century to 1797, was confirmed to Austria by the treaty of Vienna, in 1815.

THE DUCHY OF PARMA.

THIS small state is situated in Lombardy, to the south of the Po, between Sardinia on the west, and Modena on the east. It consists of the several ancient duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, and was formed into a sovereignty in 1815, in favor of Maria Louisa, the consort of Napoleon. Guastalla is separated from the main body of the state by an intervening portion of the Duchy of Modena. On the death of Maria Louisa, in 1848, the Ex-Duke of Lucca succeeded to the throne.

PARMA, the capital, is a large and handsome city on the river of the same name, and has about 30,000 inhabitants. It has a handsome cathedral, the dome of which is painted in fresco by Correggio. The church of La Ma

donna della Steccato is the great attraction of the place. PLACENTIA, (Piacenza,) near the right bank of the Po, is a well-built episcopal city, with a ducal palace, cathedral, and a citadel occupied by Austrian troops. Population, 28,000. BORGO SAN DONINO is a city with 5,000 inhabitants. GUASTALLA is a fortified city, with 6,000 inhabitants, near the right bank of the Po, north-east from Parma. FIORENZUOLA is noted chiefly for the late discovery in its vicinity of the ruins of the ancient" Velleia," which seems to have been suddenly destroyed by a volcanic eruption, or by the fall of a mountain, soon after the period of Constantine the Great. It was among these ruins that the famous Trajan table, one of the most important relics of ancient Rome, was found.

THE DUCHY OF MODENA.

MODENA is situated to the east of Parma, and between that state and the Papal dominions. It extends from the Po to the crest of the Appenines; beyond which the duke also possesses Massa and Carrara, lying between two portions of Tuscany, and reaching to the Gulf of Genoa.

MODENA, the capital, lies between the Secchia and the Panaro. The ducal palace is a magnificent structure, and as richly furnished.

The