in great plenty; lead, iron, and copper, are also abundant, but want of fuel and want of industry prevent their being wrought. The people of Ladak are of the Tibetan stock, but a considerable number of Cashmerians have settled in the country, and produced a mixed race called "Argands." The whole population amounts to 150,000 or 180,000. There is not much wealth in the country, but what there is is equally diffused, and the great body of the people are in easy and comfortable circumstances. They pay no taxes in money, but are bound to give suit and service both domestic and military, and to furnish contributions in kind for the support of the rajah and the provincial governors. The people are in general mild and timid, frank, honest, and moral, but indolent, dirty, and addicted to intoxication. Their religion is nominally Buddhism, but is a strange mixture of metaphysics, mysticism, fortune-telling, juggling, and idolatry, and the country is infested with idle lamas. The government is a simple despotism, but is so curiously modified by the circumstances of the people and the influence of the priests, that the rajah is possessed of very limited power. The business of the government is managed by the Khalun, or prime minister, assisted by deputies and other officers. The districts and towns are governed by inferior khaluns, or tanzins, or rajahs; and the business of the magistracy by "nar-pas," and the head men of the villages. There is no permanant military force-the peasants giving their services when required. The rajah is nominally independent, but pays tribute, disguised under the name of a present, to the government of H'lassa. It is The country is divided into four principal districts, viz: Ladak, in the centre; Nobra, on the north; Zanskar, on the south; and Piti, on the south-west. LE OF LEH, the capital, situated at the foot of some hills, stands in a valley, about two miles from the banks of the Sinh-kha-bab. enclosed by a wall, with projecting towers, but the streets are disposed without order, and the town forms a confused assemblage of houses. The palace of the Rajah is a large and lofty building, forming a conspicuous object to a person viewing the city from without. The trade of Ladak is extensive, and a source of profit to the people, for Leh is the great thoroughfare of the caravan trade from Yarkand, H'lassa, and Russia to Cashmere, Lahore, and India. The principal article of trade is goat's wool. Much of the transportation over the mountains is done on sheep, each carrying 20 or 25 lbs. weight. Tea, tincal, silks, and Chinese manufactures come through Tibet, but the largest trade is with Yarkand. On account of the singular custom of polyandry existing in this country, women are in excess and form a valuable article of export, and are sold to the people living south, in Lahore, and other states near the Indus. Singular as it may appear, this state of social economy does not seem to be productive of jealousy, or materially to interfere with the harmony of the house hold. The Loo-CHOO ISLANDS, (an insular kingdom in the Pacific,) are generally considered as a dependency of China, but whether or not the government of Pe-king exercises any authority over them, except in the exaction of a tribute, is problematical. The people are much similar to the Chinese, and are possessed of their institutions, literature, and religion. There language differs, however, from both the Japanese and Chinese, and is, perhaps, a mixture of the two. Little, indeed, is known respecting them; and the only town ever visited by Europeans is the great seaport of Napa-kiang, on the its northern and southern extremities, but at the neck of the peninsula only 140 miles wide. The only known feature of its physical geography is the existenc high chain of mountains which stretches through it, at a short distan the east coast. The general inclination of the greater portion of the is towards the Yellow Sea. The eastern coast is precipitous and the western is skirted by numerous islands. Though in the latitud Corea is said to have a cold climate, but the soil is fertile and well c The mountains of the northern part are covered with vast forests only valuable product is ginseng. The southern provinces abou agricultural wealth, and besides produce large quantities of hem silk and fruits. The Coreans are a well-made race, with an agreeable physi very polished manners; the arts, the sciences and language o been introduced among them. The literati form a separate state, and make use of the Chinese language and character nacular tongue is quite different, and has an alphabet of it religion is the same or nearly the same as that of China. The country forms a separate kingdom, whose ruler is his own dominions, but is nevertheless a vassal of China, presents and ambassadors to Pe-king. The country was f from the Manchus by a great wall or rampart along its which it is said is now like that of China, falling to rui towns have nearly the same general appearance as those houses are built of mud, without art, and are inconvenien KING-KAI-TAO, nearly in the centre of the peninsular p is the capital. LADAK, formerly MAR-YUL LADAK is a portion of the mountainous region Himalayas on the south, and the range of the Kar adjoining Tibet on the west, and extending from miles, and 200 from north to south, but with an irr prising altogether a superficial area of only 30,000 The country consists of a series of narrow val little better than deep ravines or defiles. They elevation of 11,000 to 13,000 feet above the lev tains which form them rise several thousand character of the surface is extreme inequality, mountains capped with snow, and close roc deep rivers rushing through them. Ther agricultural labor, and the proportion of exceed one-fifth of the whole; and th tion of the rocks, is such as to be amount of human industry and s to the labors of the husbandm fluence of winter. The har of summer being exces The country con part of Asia. tude, miles, Bassian by the De river eted by from the both of any chains met with herbage ing to the degrees meadows south is well pulation. her marine sufficient ged, and the same extremes beat in Smetimes The steppe the only pes, car adjoining sun, and The climate, ground The people of Ladak are of the Tibetan stock ha a consider vil man be v 25 180 much weaith in the country, but what there is equals the great body of the people are in easy and contrave They pay no taxes in money, but are base to ve suit art saves and mutary, and to for O cracks and crevices. sudden and fleeting; and short; and winter, the rodentia is the most nountains and the sandy ds of the antelope saiga. in almost all the grassy amats supply the cavalry quently of good breed for ts, constitute the wealth of ed in Bokhara. The tiger e banks of the Sir, and the mbers in the vicinity of all :; and dog-geese, so called co chrysætas builds its nest ing, the natural productions in number, and of little condon, 1840.) iety of races or tribes. The ing the low country, and constock, and generally short and bones, thin beards, small eyes, black hair. The aborigines of They are devoted to commerce, bly of Persian or Arabian origin. ersians in Turkestan, and many laves. The northern parts of the s, formed by an intermixture of lany of the tribes, however, have I districts, and have fixed dwellings. cy of Russia, which pensions their -t their inroads, a line of strong posts rtish. The Usbecks and Taujiks of d, are Soonee Mahomedans, very strict 1. Several tribes on the eastern borlaters. There are also Jews and Hinaternal faith. e governments are more or less despotic; generally composed of an aggregation of chiefs are in many instances elected by the s the internal affairs of the clan, and arranges litary service exacted by the general governclans do not unite in any assembly, nor claim control over the meas f the sovereign. devoted to agricult e said to be industheir neighbors as Ts, hats, paper, and ys been a great mart chief places. The and direct and extenshgar, Yarkand, &c. south-west coast of the principal island, five miles from the capital, Kienching. The group consists of 36 islands, all of which are small. The only one deserving of particular notice is Sulphur Island, 80 miles north of the Great Loo-choo, which contains a sulphuric volcano, that constantly emits white smoke. The MADJICOSIMA ISLANDS are also subject to the king of Loo-choo. TURKESTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY. TURKESTAN is an extensive country lying between 36° and 51° N. latitude, and 45° and 78° E. longitude, extending from east to west 1,350 miles, and from north to south 1,260. It is bounded on the north by the Russian Provinces; on the south by Affghanistan and Iran; on the east by the Chinese colony of Ili, and on the west by the Caspian Sea and the river Oural. The greater part of the country is composed of sandy plains, intersected by a few rivers, and studded with small lakes. It generally rises from the shores of the Caspian and Aral Sea towards the south and east, on both of which sides it is enclosed by high mountains. The great plain at the foot of the mountains has an elevation of 2,000 feet, but the elevation of the desert is much less. The steppe of Kirghiz, in the north, has not everywhere a uniform surface, nor does it constitute a vast plain, as the name might be thought to imply it is on the contrary intersected by many chains of hills, and nowhere exhibits those boundless expanses which are met with elsewhere. It is nowhere fertile, and the want of water renders the herbage scant and poor, and the general appearance is unvaried and fatiguing to the eye. It may, however, be divided into several regions, of various degrees of fertility. The most fertile district is in the north, where the meadows are rich, and the forests produce magnificent timber. The south is generally sterile, and the central regions, though containing many wellfavored spots, are upon the whole unfit for an agricultural population. Shells, pebbles of diverse colors, petrifactions, mollusca, and other marine remains, spread over this region at a distance from the sea, are sufficient evidence that at no very remote period the whole has been submerged, and the salt lakes everywhere studding the surface bear evidence to the same fact. The climate of the plains and steppes of Turkestan is subject to extremes of heat and cold; the sandy face of the country producing intense heat in summer, while, on the contrary, in winter the same deserts are sometimes covered with snow, and are always cold during the night. In the steppe of Kirghiz the extremes are remarkable. Nor are these extremes the only evil severe storms, hurricanes, and whirlwinds blow over the steppes, carrying everything that is moveable before them. In the region adjoining the Oural the temperature sometimes rises to 145° Fahr., in the sun, and to 109 in the shade; and the sand is so hot as to roast eggs. The climate, however, is generally healthy. Rain is very rare in the steppes; the ground is consequently very dry, and in summer breaks into cracks and crevices. The seasons may be represented as follows: spring, sudden and fleeting; summer, dry and burning; autumn, rainy, gloomy, and short; and winter, long, dry, and constantly cold. Among the mammiferous animals in the steppe, the rodentia is the most numerous; wolves inhabit caverns in the gypsum mountains and the sandy districts, and the canis corsac roams among the herds of the antelope saiga. Horses are the most valuable domestic animals in almost all the grassy steppes. Among these, the beautiful race of Argamats supply the cavalry of Khiva. Camels of both species, and sheep, frequently of good breed for wool, and some of them fat-tailed-beeves and goats, constitute the wealth of the wandering tribes. Fine wool goats are bred in Bokhara. The tiger has been found in the vicinity of the Aral, on the banks of the Sir, and the Kouvan. The wild boar is found in great numbers in the vicinity of all the rivers; the mouse in the Kirghiz steppe; and dog-geese, so called from their burrowing in the ground. The falco chrysætas builds its nest. in the Kirghiz steppe. But, generally speaking, the natural productions peculiar to the country are comparatively few in number, and of little consequence. (Zimmerman's Memoir, &c., London, 1840.) The country is inhabited by a great variety of races or tribes. The Usbecks are the most numerous race occupying the low country, and consist of 32 tribes. They are of the Toorkee stock, and generally short and stout, with broad, flat foreheads, high cheek bones, thin beards, small eyes, clear and ruddy complexion, and generally black hair. The aborigines of the country are the Taujiks, or Tats. They are devoted to commerce, speak the Persian language, and are probably of Persian or Arabian origin. There is besides a great number of Persians in Turkestan, and many Jews, Hindoos, Armenian and Russian slaves. The northern parts of the country are occupied by nomadic tribes, formed by an intermixture of Kalmucks, Kazaks, and Kirghiz. Many of the tribes, however, have adopted the habits of the more improved districts, and have fixed dwellings. The northern hordes own the supremacy of Russia, which pensions their chiefs; and for greater security against their inroads, a line of strong posts is kept up between the Oural and Irtish. The Usbecks and Taujiks of Bokhara, Khiva, Balkh, and Khokand, are Soonee Mahomedans, very strict in their profession, and even fanatical. Several tribes on the eastern borders are Shiahs, and some are idolaters. There are also Jews and Hindoos, who profess of course their paternal faith. In all the states of Turkestan the governments are more or less despotic; but each nation or body politic is generally composed of an aggregation of clans, or úrúghs, of which the chiefs are in many instances elected by the people. The chief administers the internal affairs of the clan, and arranges the quota of tribute and military service exacted by the general government. But these heads of clans do not unite in any assembly, nor claim the right of exercising any control over the measures of the sovereign. The people are mostly devoted to agriculture, and are said to be industrious; but the Bokharians are distinguished above all their neighbors as manufacturers, and excel in fine cotton and silk-stuffs, hats, paper, and other articles which they produce. Bokhara has always been a great mart for Central Asia, and numerous fairs are held in the chief places. The Russians and British have a great share in this trade, and direct and extensive commercial intercourse is kept up with Cashgar, Yarkand, &c. VOL. II. 36 |