tion of his capitulation, and as such remains a monument of French treachery and French disgrace. The nation that would so use a fallen foe, is unworthy of esteem. Besides the recent conquests, France has possessed for four centuries a territory called the "Concessions," extending along the coast from Bougiah to the frontier of Tunis. This has long been used as a station for the coral fisheries of the coast; but it is probably now incorporated with the general affairs of the colony.

TUNIS.

TUNIS, (anciently Zeugitania and Bizacium, with a part of Gætulia,) a regency, nominally dependent on the Ottoman Empire, lies immediately on the east of Algiers and along the Mediterranean, between the 7th and 11th meridians of east longitude. It is about 450 miles in length from north to south, and about 150 in breadth, containing an area of 72,000 square miles. This territory is traversed by several branches of the Atlas, one of which separates it from the "Bilad-ul-Jerid," or country of dates. The south part of the regency is mostly a sandy waste, and some other parts are desert; but many tracts are of the highest fertility, particularly those watered by the Mejerdah. In the south, about 40 miles inland, is the "Sibbah," a remarkable tract 70 miles in length, portions of which formed the Palus Lybic, Palus Tritonis, &c., of antiquity. In winter it is covered with water to the depth of two or three feet, but at other times it is a dry plain, the surface being entirely encrusted with salt. About the centre of the lake are the foundations of a circular tower, where caravans halt to feed their camels; and in several parts are elevated plateaux, forming islands in the rainy season, the largest of which, covered with a luxuriant vegetation of date palms, is the "Phla" of Herodotus. The coasts of Tunis are greatly indented by bays; those of Tunis, Hamamet, and the Gulf of Ghabz, being the principal. The principal promontories or head-lands are-the Dakhul, a long tongue of land terminating in Cape Bon, (ancient Prom. Mercurii,) the scene of several events related in the fifth book of the Æneid; Cape Serra; Ras-el-Abiad, or the white promontory; Ras-Zibeeb, &c. The shores on the north are frequently bold, but in the south they are low and sandy.

The

The geology of this country has been little or not at all studied, nor has its mineral resources been turned to profit for many ages. Copper and lead were among the exports of the Carthagenians, and these metals, with silver, are still found in the mountains. The climate is less hot than the position of the country would indicate. At Tunis, the thermometer seldom exceeds 96°, and in winter sinks no lower than 52° Fahr. rainy season extends from Oct. to May. As early as January the surface is covered with fresh verdure, and the whole of the climate may be said to be healthy, as well as pleasant. The plague, however, is not unfrequent; but this is said to be owing more to the filthiness of the inhabitants, and want of police, than to any defect in the climate. The vegetation and animals are exactly like those of Algeria, and agriculture is in about as poor a condition. The land has been celebrated, through ages, for its fertility; and Tunis was one of the granaries of ancient Rome. Irrigation is, perhaps, more used in Tunis than in any other part of Barbary. Large quantities of fine coral are found round the coasts, which are visited in consequence by Sicilian and Neapolitan fishermen.

The people are of several races, but chiefly similar to those described in previous sections. The population has been very variously estimated; but, perhaps, it may be taken at from two to two and a half millions, of whom, probably, from 7,000 to 10,000 are Turks; about the same number are Christians; 120,000 renegadoes; 100,000 Jews; and the remainder Arabs, Moors, and Berebers-the Arabs being the most numerous.

Manufacturing industry is not a distinguishing feature in the Tunisians. Some silk, woollen and linen fabrics, with leather, &c., are made; but the principal manufactures are soap, and "baretti," or red caps of Tunis, so well known throughout the Mediterranean. Marocco leather is made in considerable quantities, and dyed skins are an article of extensive export.

Tunis is favorably situated for a large commerce with Europe, or as an entrepôt to the central portions of Africa. The commerce with Europe is of some value, but the great bulk is directed inland, and over land to Egypt and Constantinople. The value of this is uncertain; and the only tangible idea we can form of it is derived from a statement made by the French Consul, at Tunis, who estimates the value of exports at 9,406,436 francs annually. The government monopolizes the trade in many articles, as tobacco, wax, wool, and provisions, which it farms out to various individuals.

The government is in the hands of a dey, who, though nominally dependent on the Ottoman Padishah, rules despotically. He receives the kaftan, with the dignity of a pasha of three tails, from the Padishah. The divan is composed of 37 members, each of whom has a vote in the council; but this body has only a nominal authority. The revenues of the state have been estimated at 24,000,000 piastres, or about $7,000,000. Its principal sources are the customs, tithes on cultivation, and sale of permits for the exportation of necessaries, and the importation of wines and spirits; usury taxes, the beys' domains, the sale of government offices, a poll-tax on the Jews, the traffic in slaves, extortions, and private mercantile speculations.

The armed force consists of about 50,000 men; but of these, 40,000 are contingent, (chiefly cavalry,) furnished by the different Arab tribes. The regular infantry, about 2,000 strong, were originally organized by an English officer. There are about 3,000 Turkish infantry, 2,000 spahis, or paid cavalry, and 300 Mamelukes. The latter form a body guard to the bey, and are considered as a sort of nobility or aristocracy. The naval force now consists of only a corvette, a few brigs and schooners, and about 30 gun-boats. Tunis is no longer formidable for piratical expeditions; by treaty with France, in 1830, piracy and Christian slavery were wholly abolished.

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TUNIS, (anc. Tunes,) the capital, is a large, but irregularly-built city, with narrow streets, situated on the west side of a shallow gulf, which communicates with the Mediterranean by a narrow entrance, named the " Goleta." The citadel, named El-Gaspa," is on the west side of the city, but is completely commanded by the neighboring heights. The bey's fortified palace, called "El-Bardo," is about two miles west of the city. The Goleta is well-fortified, having its entrance defended by a castle of the same name; and, besides, from the small depth of the bay or lagoon, indicating nowhere more than a fathom, ships cannot approach the city. Tunis carries on a more extensive trade than any other city of Barbary; its population exceeds 100,000, of whom 80,000 are Jews; and of these about 600 are

tailors, and 1,000 goldsmiths. On the sea-coast, north of the Goleta, and 13 miles north-east of Tunis, is the site of the ancient city of Carthage, of which nothing is left but heaps of stones and remains of walls, with some cisterns and subterranean vaults.

KERWAN, OF Kairwan, 80 miles south by east of Tunis, a large town of 60,000 inhabitants, holds the fourth place in point of holiness in the Moslem world; an honor it owes to the circumstance of its containing the tomb of the friend and barber of the prophet! which is placed within a large mosque, said to be supported by 500 granite pillars. Kerwan was long the Metropolis of the Arab Empire in Africa, and the seat of science; but at present it is only famous for its sanctuary, and its shoemakers, whose morocco boots are considered as the best in Barbary. South-east of Kerwan, 30 miles distant, are the remains of a magnificent amphitheatre, still very entire. At a place called El-Jemm, the ancient "Tysdrus;" and at Sfetlah, 85 miles south-west, are the fine ruins of the ancient Sufetula. KHABZ, Gabs, or Cabes, on the south-west shore of the Little Syrtis, at the mouth of a rivulet, the famous "Tritonis" of the ancients, is a large town, with 20,000 or 30,000 inhabitants; but its harbor is now accessible only for small vessels. The other principal places are Sfax, on the southeast coast, with about 14,000 inhabitants; Bizerta, the ancient Hippo Zarytus, with 8,000; Porto Farina, at the mouth of the Mejerdah; Hammamet; Sousa and Mister, on the coast of the Gulf of Hammamet; Ghafsah, Nefta, and Tozer, on the south-west frontier; and Mahadiah on the coast east of Keruan.

This region, which in ancient times was the centre of the Carthagenian dominions, remained in the possession of the Romans from the destruction of Carthage to the beginning of the fifth century, when the Vandals settled themselves in Africa. In 690 it became subject to the Kalifs; and after belonging to several successive dynasties, was conquered by Barbarossa in 1534. The emperor Charles V., in 1537, took Tunis, and restored the dethroned Muley Hassan; but in 1570 the country was taken anew by the Turks, and it has only gained its independence by the gradual decline of their empire.

TRIPOLI.

TRIPOLI, (the Regio Syrtica of the ancients,) the most easterly of the Barbary States, comprises in its territory, exclusive of Tripoli Proper, the district of Barca. It stretches along the coast about 800 miles; but owing to the frequent interruption of the desert, its breadth inland varies greatly: the area, however, is computed at about 100,000 square miles. The population is somewhat less than that of Tunis: in their civilization, pursuits, and industry, the people are on a level with the other Barbary states, and to speak of them would be a useless repetition. The government is in the hands of a bey, or pasha, who rules with despotic sway, and is chosen from among the Turkish officers resident in Tripoli, being confirmed in hi authority by a firman from the Turkish padishah. He presides in the divan, and is assisted in his various duties by a "bey commander-in-chief;" an "aga," commanding the Turkish soldiers; the "kaya," or grand judge, who dispenses justice daily at the castle gate of the capital; the chief offi cers of the treasury and household; the "Sheikh-el-bled," or head police magistrate; the "mufti," or head of the priesthood; the "cadi," or judge in matters of faith, &c. The district governors seem to have powers

equivalent to the bey in their own districts. The revenues are derived from the tribute of the district governors, and the Arab tribes in the interior; taxes on Jews and merchants, confiscations, exactions, pardons, &c. The standing army amounts to 3,000 men; but, in time of war, 10,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry may be raised by levy. The naval force is insignificant, consisting almost wholly of a few small vessels.

TRIPOLI, the capital, stands on a low neck of land, 13° 13′ E. longitude, surrounded by an extensive wall; but a large portion of the enclosure is unoccupied. The caravansaries, mosques, bazaars, and better class of houses, are built with stone, and regularly whitewashed twice a year: they are usually two stories high, but not equal to those of the same class either in Tunis or Algiers. The population does not exceed 25,000. Tripoli carries on a considerable trade with the interior of Africa, to which it may be considered as one of the principal shipping ports; and its bey used to exercise considerable influence over Fezzan and the tribes of the adjacent desert. Close to the city is a fine Roman triumphal arch, and other antiquities.

Along the coast, east and west of the city, between the two Syrtes, are the inconsiderable towns of Zoarah, or Ezwarah, Lebidab, (anc. Leptis,) Magna and Mesurata, or Misratah.

To the eastward of the Great Syrtis, is the dependent province of Barca, the principal places of which, likewise on the coast, are Bengazi, (anc. Berenice ;) Teukera and Dalmeta, (anc. Ptolemais,) once flourishing towns, but now reduced to insignificance; and Dernah or Beled-al-Sour, the residence of the bey, a town of 4,000 inhabitants, on the north-east coast.

But the most flourishing place in the district is Grennah, or Kuren, (anc. Kupevn, or Cyrene,) the ruins of which are finely situated on a high table plain, which descends abruptly to the sea by successive stages. The most remarkable of the ruins is the Necropolis, consisting of tombs arranged in terraces along the mountains, and extending a mile and a half along the roads which lead to the city, so as to present the appearance of splendid streets. Kurene was founded by the ancient Greeks, and was for a long time one of their most flourishing colonies, but is now completely deserted. In the southern part of Barca is the district of Augela, with a town of the same name, which derives some importance from its being one of the stages on the great caravan road between Egypt and Fezzan.

In the middle ages, Tripoli generally shared the same fate of the rest of this portion of Africa. In 1522 it was given by the emperor Charles V., who had become possessed of some authority over it, to the knights of Rhodes; but they were driven from it, in 1551, by the Turks. Fezzan was rendered tributary in 1714; but the authority of the bey over that part of the country, or Barca, appears to be little more than nominal, or, at any rate, very much disturbed. Fezzan, indeed, may be considered an independent state. The relations of this country with Turkey are also very equivocal.

ES SAHARA, OR THE DESERT.

THE Sahara extends across the breadth of Northern Africa, from the Atlantic Ocean eastward, to the valley of the Nile; and from the Bilad-ulJerid southward, to the borders of Soudan; containing within these limits a superficies of about 2,000,000 square miles.

This wide region is covered more or less with quartzose and calcareous sand, though in some places the surface is composed of naked clay or bare rocks. Lakes, strongly saline, also occur, forming the natron and salt lakes mentioned by travellers. Here and there, however, there are found scattered over the surface fertile spots, called wahs or oases, which contain wells of good water, and a considerable share of tropical vegetation; but the greater portion consists of scorching sands, without water, bird or tree, varied only by masses of igneous and other rocks. These wahs are most numerous about the middle of the desert, extending southward from Tripoli to Bornou, and that part of it is most frequented by travellers. To the westward the desert becomes more cheerless and forbidding, the watering places are at a greater distance, and vegetation more scanty; the wells frequently become dry, and men and camels disappointed of water die in hundreds and thousands. The western portion is also more sandy than the middle, and is consequently not only more subject to the fearful simoon, but also to furious tempests of wind, which roll the sands before them like the waves of the sea. To such a degree, indeed, are the sands heated by the unclouded glare of the sun, and to such a fineness are they reduced by constant motion, that the atmosphere becomes filled with their particles; and to a great distance westward in the Atlantic Ocean, ships find their rigging choked up with them. This portion of the desert may be pronounced to be almost tenantless. In other places, where the supply of water and pasturage is more abundant, small parties of Moors and Arabs have taken up their residence, and live in independent poverty, secure from the tyrannical governments of Barbary. But the greater portion of the desert, being entirely destitute of water, is seldom visited by human beings, unless where the trading caravans thread their dreary way across it. In some places, however, the ground is covered with low stunted shrubs, which serve as landmarks for the caravans, and furnish a scanty forage for the camels. Elsewhere the unfortunate wanderer, wherever he turns, sees nothing but a boundless expanse of sand and sky, a gloomy and barren road, where the eye finds nothing to rest upon, and the mind is filled with fearful apprehensions. In the midst of this solitude the traveller sees the carcasses of birds which the violence of the winds has brought from happier regions; and as he ruminates on the fearful length of his remaining journey, listens with horror to the driving blasts, the only sound that breaks upon the silence of the desert.

The only vestiges of animal life in these fearful regions are the antelope and the ostrich, whose swiftness of foot enables them to reach the distant watering places. On the skirts of the desert, where water is more plentiful, are found lions, tigers, panthers, elephants and wild boars; but the only tamed animal that can bear the fatigue of crossing the desert is the camel. The desert is traversed in various directions by numerous routes, varying in length from 30 to 90 days, which terminate at the principal cities and towns of Soudan and Barbary, but deviate from their straight course in several instances, according as trading towns or oases lie nearly in the way.

The Sahara is inhabited by numerous tribes of various lineage, which are scattered in its wahs or fertile spots. The "Moors" occupy the coast of the Atlantic, between Marocco and Senegal, and extend eastward to the limits of the Tuaricks. They are subdivided into a great number of tribes, and consist partly of pure Arabs, and partly of a mixed race, descended of both Arabs and Berebers; most of whom are distinguished for ferocity and love of plunder. The " Tuaricks" are a numerous and warlike people,