THE PEARL-FISHERY IN CEYLON. THE Country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye, but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (amongst which is the plant that nourishes the Cochineal *), and here and there some straggling villages with a few cocoanut trees. But Condaachty, three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to be seen but a few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during the period of the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of which extend upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are only intended as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely constructed), and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair on the grandest scale. The people most active in erecting huts and speculating in the various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans, Cingalese (natives of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast of the continent of India. Apparently, however, from their natural timidity, none of the Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them engage in the other active parts of the fishery: they merely resort hither for the purpose of supplying the markets.

About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery, when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a good fishery may be expected. The " banks,"

Meleagrina Margaritifera. or beds of oysters, are scattered over a space in the gulph of Manaar, extending thirty miles from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to fifteen fathoms.

The pearl-oysters in these banks are all of one species †, and of the same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster,-but considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference. The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside of the shell (the real" mother of pearl,") is even brighter and more beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured. The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest, and most fleshy part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty. The pearl itself is probably the result of some * The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.

t The Meleagrina Margaritifera of Lamarck.

Inner view, showing the Pearls. Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely at its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators: but, most frequently, the right of fishing is sold to one individual, who sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year 1804, was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than 120,0007.

At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These, with their crews and divers, and completely equipped with every thing necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.

At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from each side of the boat, and from it the divingtackle is suspended, with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip knot, and descends about five feet into the water. It is a stone of fiftysix pounds weight, of a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrupiron, to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a slip of calico round his loins,swimming in the water, he takes hold of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of the stone. He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon 'as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone, which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting oar in the same

manner as before. to be in readiness for the next diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as much as possible upon his face, and collects every thing he can get hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver at the same time, free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above water a considerable time before the basket. He presently comes up at a distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet in this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert diver will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket. There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down alternately the one rests and refreshes, while the other plunges. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for six hours.

When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal, and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten to the water's edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and noise are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore, where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells which have pearls adhering to them are thrown on one side, and afterwards handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from the shells, with pincers.

When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured into a sack made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost. Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together are by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom. As soon as the sand is dry, it is sifted; the large pearls, being conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small and diminutive ("seed pearls," as they are called), is a work of considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves. After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are arranged on strings, and are then fit for the market.

Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18), and are often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular of which,-known to have been practised early in the Christian æra, on the banks of the Red Sea,-is still carried on in China. A hole is bored in the shell of the pearl-oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted, and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.

False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is covered with a liquid, called pearlessence, and then filled with white wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles, which adhere to the scales of the Bleak (Ablette), and was first applied to this purpose early in the last century by a Frenchman of the name of Jacquin.

In the year 1761, Linnæus discovered the art by which the muscles which are found in many of our rivers might be made to produce pearls: but we believe it has never been made public. The muscles found in the river Conway, in Wales, and in some of the rivers of Scotland, have not unfrequently produced large and fine-coloured pearls. F. E. P.

[Abridged from CORDINER'S History of Ceylon.]

THE EVENING CLOUD.

A CLOUD lay cradled near the setting sun,
A gleam of crimson tinged its braided snow,
Long had I watch'd the glory moving on

O'er the still radiance of the lake below;
Tranquil its spirit seem'd, and floated slow,
E'en in its very motion there was rest,

While every breath of eve that chanced to blow Wafted the traveller to the beauteous west;Emblem, methought, of the departed soul, To whose white robe the gleam of bliss is given, And, by the breath of mercy, made to roll, Right onward to the golden gates of heaven; Where, to the eye of faith, it peaceful lies, And tells to man his glorious destinies.

ON SURNAMES.

THE names which were at first given to men seem to have had a relation either to some remarkable quality by which an individual might be distinguished, or to some particular circumstance in his history. Although there be many names, of the meaning of which all trace has been lost, yet it is by no means probable that any senseless sound was ever applied as a designation to man. Of this we have so many examples in sacred and profane history, that we may draw this conclusion from analogy, as well as probability. Thus the word Adam, in the Hebrew language, signifies earth, and was given to the parent of mankind in remembrance of his being formed out of the dust of the ground. When Eve exclaimed, in her joy at the birth of her first-born son, "I have gotten a man from the Lord," she gave to him the name of Cain, which signifies possession. To the Jewish lawgiver was given the name of Moses, which, in the Hebrew tongue, is drawn forth, in remembrance of his being drawn out of the water by the daughter of Pharaoh. Numberless similar instances might be adduced from Holy Writ, as well as from the Greek and Roman languages.

Turn we now to the ancient form of our own language, the Anglo Saxon, in which we shall find abundant proof of that which has been asserted. Thus,

those who first bore them.

the

I suppose the Romans were the only nation in old time who bore hereditary surnames. Amongst the barbarous people who possessed, in their room, different countries of Europe, it is not unlikely that such might be applied to individuals distinguished among their brethren by some notable quality. It was in the eleventh century that they began to be adopted universally throughout Europe, as hereditary marks of distinction, and they were introduced into this land by the Norman invaders.

At first, it would seem, they were confined to the gentry, or nobility; who, to their Christian names, commonly added the names of those towns or villages of which they were severally lords, whether in Normandy or England: as Roger de Montgomery, William de Courtney, Joceline de Percy, William de Copeland, Thomas de Stanley, &c.*.

"The most surnames in number," says Camden, "the most ancient, and of best account, have been local, deduced from places in Normandie and the countries confining, being either the patrimoniall possessions, or native places of such as served the conqueror, or came in after, out of Normandy; as Mortimer, Warren, Albigny, Gournay, Devereux, Tankerville, "Neither," says he, "is there any village in Normandy that gave not denomination to some family in England." Moreover, several surnames were formed by adding Fitz (or son), to the name of the bearer's father; as Fitz Osborne, Fitz Stephen, Fitz Patrick, Fitz Gerald, &c.; this addition not being, at that time, the mark of illegitimacy. Others there were which denoted the quality or occupation of the bearer: as Basset, the fat; Giffard, the liberal; Howard, the high warden; Boteler, the grand butler; with others of the like sort.

In course of time the use of surnames was adopted by the other classes who added to their Christian names the titles of their crafts: as Smith, Baker, Fowler, Turner, &c.; or the names of their fathers: as Thomson, the son of Thomas; Dickson, the son of Dick; Lawson, the son of Lawrence; Hodgson, the son of Roger; Gibson, the son of Gilbert ; &c. : or the qualities of body or mind for which they were distinguished: as Long, Grey, Brown, Love, Humble, Young, Slender, &c.

Of those surnames which are in use in our days,

I here is yet, m the south-west part of Cumberland, a family whose forefathers have been lords, these eight centuries, of the village whose name they bear.

many proceed from the causes above mentioned, as well as from others which it would be endless here to enumerate. It would be well, however, to mention a few of the changes which many of those first alluded to have undergone; thus, for de Bello Monte, we read Beaumont; for de Cadurcis, Chaworth; for de Malo Lacu, Mawley; for de Nová Villa, Neville; for de Insula, Lisle; for de Alta Ripa, Dealtry; &c.

We can no more, at sight of a name, determine the rank of him who bears it. They whose fathers wielded the lance or the battle-axe, now handle the ploughshare, or strike the anvil; and the sons of those bold yeomen, who drew the bow or tilled the ground, now make laws for their fathers' land.

THE MONTH OF JANUARY JANUARY was distinguished as the first month of the year by Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, when he added it and the month of February to the calendar or year of Romulus, the founder and first king of that city. This month, which consists of thirty-one days (originally only thirty), derived its appellation from the Latin Januarius, veneration. The first month of the year was named after in honour of Janus, a Pagan deity, held in the highest him, not only on account of his great reputation for judgment respecting things that were past, and his presumed foresight, or foreknowledge of events to come; but also, because he was supposed to have the gates of heaven committed to his particular charge; from which circumstance, Hence, too, every Roman door or gate had the name of he was always represented with a key in his right hand. Janua; therefore, the first month being styled JANUARIUS, many authors have considered that name to have denoted this period as a door, or opening to a new era, or renewal of time; for Janus presided over time, as well war and peace. The statue of Janus had two faces, turned from each other; one old, and expressive of experience in, or allusive to, things past; the other young, d typical of his looking forward to the future, or into

to come. On some occasions, he was represented with our faces, emblematic of the four seasons, over which he was supposed to have control. He was still further distinguished as the deity presiding over the year, by being exhibited as sitting in the centre of twelve altars; to denote Numa's division of the year into twelve months. On this occasion figures were engraven on his hands, to mark the extent, or number of days, to which the year was augmented by that sovereign.

Numa, who was a wise and peaceful prince, by taking away the honour of leading the year from March, which was dedicated to Mars, the pagan god of war, and by giving that preference to January, perhaps sought to induce his people to value the benefits of Peace, rather than those to be expected from a state of warfare;-but he was also actuated by the desire to begin the year at that period when the Sun should reach its greatest declension, or fall; and so keep pace with the progress of that luminary, until it had fulfilled its course, or until the same period next year. The temple dedicated to Janus, was ordered, however, to be kept shut in time of amiable example and precepts of Numa operate upon his peace, and open during war: and so powerfully did the subjects, that he had the satisfaction, during his reign, of seeing this temple closed;-although the Romans were usually so addicted to war, that in the space of 800 years, it was closed only six times. The first and longest period was during the life time of Numa himself; the the reign of Augustus;-and the sixth-time during the second at the end of the First Punic War;-thrice during reign of the emperor Nero.-It may be remarked in this place, that when Julius Cæsar made his alteration in the Roman Calendar, he made Juno supersede Janus, as the guardian deity of the Month of January.

VERSTEGAN observes, that our Saxon ancestors originally styled this month, "WOLF-MONAT;" because persons were in greater danger of being devoured by Wolves in that season of the year than in any other;-for, the ground being covered with snow, and wild animals, generally, keeping within their dens and holes, as much as possible, these creatures, having no flesh to feed upon, became so ravenous as to attack human beings. When Christianity began to prevail in Britain, "AEFTER-YULA," that is After Christmas, became the name of the month of January,

In old paintings, the month of JANUARY 13 represented | by the figure of a man clad in white; which is typical of the snow that usually lies on the ground at this season:he is blowing on his fingers to indicate the cold; and under his left arm he holds a billet of wood;-or a brazier lies at his feet, filled with flaming wood and glowing charcoal, Near him stands the figure which usually represents the Sign of Aquarius, (or that twelfth part of the Zodiac, or sun s apparent annual course,) into which the Sun enters on the 19th of this month. The Anglo-Saxons, who were greatly addicted to drinking, depicted JANUARY as a man seated at a table and drinking ale from a goblet: in the back ground were seen persons ploughing with oxen, sowing seed, and otherwise employed in agricultural labours peculiar to the winter season of the year.

TUESDAY, 1st JANUARY.

THE DAY of CIRCUMCISION, or NEW YEAR'S DAY.-This day was kept as a festival by the Greeks, in which they celebrated the completion of the sun's annual course, and rejoiced that it had again begun its enlivening progress; and, in honour of Janus, by the Romans, who were in the habit of sending presents of dried figs, dates covered with leaf-gold, also honey and other sweetmeats, to their friends; expressing a wish that they might enjoy the sweets of the year into which they had just entered; they also visited and congratulated each other, and offered up vows for mutual preservation. The Day of Circumcision was instituted in the Christian Church, by Pope Felix III., A.D. 487, under the denomination of the Octave of Christmas; and introduced into the English Liturgy in 1550, in commemoration of the Circumcision of Jesus Christ, according to the Jewish ritual, on the 8th day after his nativity.

The First of January having been observed by Pagan nations as a day of rejoicing, and for offering up sacrifices to the idol Janus, the primitive Christians celebrated it as a Fast, in order to avoid even the semblance of joining in their customs and worship. According to the Catholic Legends, it was held in such high esteem by the Romans, that they would not sully it even by martyring the Christians, at such a joyful period! It is still kept as a holiday throughout the several nations of Europe and America; the bells of most of the churches being rung at midnight to welcome the New Year. ANNIVERSARIES.

1067 William the Conqueror crowned at Westminster. 1308 William Tell, the Swiss patriot, aroused his countrymen against the Austrians: the opposition was carried on during three centuries, and terminated in the independence of Switzerland, by the treaty of Westphalia, A.D. 1648.

1651 Charles II. crowned King of the Scots, at Scone, near Perth. 1689 Abdication of James II. King of England. 1730 Edmund Burke born.

1801 The Union of Great Britain with Ireland, as established by Act of Parliament, is dated from this day.

1801 Piazzi, an astronomer of Palermo, in Sicily, discovered a new planet, which he named CERES.

WEDNESDAY, 2nd.

THIS day is a Jewish Fast, on account of the first approaches made by Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, towards the siege of Jerusalem, as recorded in the 29th chapter of Jeremiah.

18 Liey, the Roman historian, died at Padua, his native city. 18 On the same day and year, Ovid, the Latin poet, died. 1727 General Wolfe born.

1801 Lavater, the Physiognomist, died at Zurich. 1827 Dr. John Mason Good died near London.

THURSDAY, 3rd

Marous Tullius Cicero, the great Roman orator, born in the 107th year before the birth of Christ.

1322 Philip the Long, King of France, died. Once, when urged to

punish a rebellious nobleman, he said to his courtiers," It is pleasant to have vengeance in our power, and not to take it." 1670 General Monk, Duke of Albemarle, died. 1795 Josiah Wedgewood, the celebrated chemist and potter, died. 3805 Charles Townley, the collector of the Townleian Marbles in the British Museum, died.

FRIDAY, 4th.

1568 Roger Ascham, tutor to Queen Elizabeth, died. 1580 Archbishop Usher born.

SATURDAY, 5th.

1477 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, killed at the Battle of Nancy.

.724 Czartan Petrarch, a Greek, died at Rofrosch, near Temeswar in Hungary, aged 185 years.

1757 Damiens attempted to assassinate Louis XV. of France. 1827 Frederick, Duke of York, died.

SUNDAY, 6th.

EPIPHANY, TWELFTH DAY: or OLD CHRISTMAS DAY.-The Greek word Epiphaneia, signifies an appearance, apparition, or manifestation; and this day is kept as a festival throughout Christendom, in commemoration of the manifestation, or appearance, of Christ upon earth. The early Christians celebrated the feast of the Nativity of Jesus, during twelve days; namely, from Christmas, the day of his birth, until the twelfth day onwards: the first and last of these days were denominated Epiphany; namely, the greater and the lesser Epiphany; and they were observed with the greatest solemnity. The first, or greater one, was celebrated on account of Christ having, on that day, become incarnate, or assumed the human form; or, as the Scriptural writers have it, "made his appearance in the flesh." The second, or lesser Epiphany, was observed on account of three

manifestations, or appearances, which were all thought to have taken place on this day, although not in the same year; the first was the star which conducted the Magi, or wise men, from the east towards Bethlehem; the second, the descent of the Holy Ghost, in the form of a dove, at the baptism of Christ in the river Jordan; and the third, the turning of the water into wine, at the marriage in Cana, which was the first miracle that Jesus performed.

The EPIPHANY or Twelfth-Day, appears to have been observed as a separate Feast in the year 813; but Pope Julius I. is said to have the middle of the fourth century.

distinguished the Feasts of the Nativity and Epiphany, so early as

In order to commemorate the offerings of the ancient Magi, the King of Great Britain, either personally or through his Grat Chamberlain, annually offers a quantity of gold, frankincense, and myrrh, on this day, at the altar of the Chapel Royal, St. James's. In Spain, where Epiphany is called the Feast of the Three Kings, the sovereign is accustomed to make similar offerings.

From the circumstance of this festival being held twelve days after Christmas, it has derived the common name of TWELFTH DAY; by which appellation it is most generally known. Throughout Christendom, it is the custom to provide a fruit cake for each family; thence denominated Twelfth Cake. (See page 4).

England is not singular in the festive observance of Twelfth Day; for nearly the whole of Europe practises the like customs which differ only in a few particular points, arising from national, political, or religious prejudices. In Roman Catholic countries, the Carnival commences on TWELFTH DAY, and usually lasts till Lent. Lighting fires in the wheat-fields on this day, is still common in some parts of Hereford and Gloucestershire; and the evening concludes with feasting and dancing:--a similar custom in Scotland and Ireland, is denominated Belteign; that is, "The fire of the God Baal. 1402 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, born 1698 Metastasio, the famous Italian poet, born

MONDAY, 7th. PLOUGH-MONDAY.-Anciently on the first Monday after Epiphany all husbandmen resumed the Plough. In many parts of this country, especially in the North, the Plough is still drawn in procession from house to house, by men gaily decorated with ribbons; and in many cases, by others dressed as clowns, witches, &c.

1558 Calais, which had been in possession of the English during two hundred years, surrendered to the French. 1715 Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray, died. 1763 Allan Ramsay, the Scottish pastoral poet, died. 1785 Mr. Blanchard, accompanied by Dr. Jefferies, went from Dover to Calais, in an air-balloon.