for some years, but the ma'nidos have been consulted for remedies wherewith to combat violent symptoms of disease supposed to have been caused by angry or jealous rivals.

Then the tshi'saqka lies on the ground and begins to chant, during which time the ma'nidos begin to arrive. Their arrival is made known to those outside by the air swaying the top of the structure, and the wind also can be felt and heard.

The maʼnidos are next heard dropping upon the ground within, and their voices can be distinguished. Presently the assistant, or perhaps the one who desires information, goes to the tshi'saqkan and tapswith a stick or other object-upon the four upright poles in regular order, beginning at the east, then passing to the south, the west, and the north, and asks if all the ma'nidos have arrived. The tshi'saqka replies that all have arrived save one-his own personal maʼnido. Then the tshi'saqka sings and drums again, and presently a voice is heard above the tshi'saqkan, resembling the voice of the tshi'saqka. Their voices are similar, and the conversation between them is heard by all those seated or standing near by.

The rattle employed by the juggler, both in the jugglery and when exorcising demons, is shown in figure 21.

The Miqkä'no-the turtle-is the most powerful of all the ma'nidos, and he, as the speaker for the others, is consulted for information; but should the tshi'saqka ask too many, or any inju dicious questions, the personal ma'nido will be heard above the tshi'saqkan, in the same tone of voice as the interrogation, advising the latter to be careful, or not to be incautious in his demands.

When such a service has been performed in the interest of a sick person, the friends and family of the sick believe that the illness has been caused by the anger of an enemy through the influence of another tshi'saqka. The one consulted by the friends of the sick man is expected to reveal the name of the injuring conjurer, and to bring his shade into the tshi'saqkan. This is done, and the Miqkä'no is then the maʼnido who kicks the shade of the conjurer almost to death; if he is too much hurt and loses consciousness, the other ma'nidos bring his shade back to life, so that he is able to respond to the questions of the tshi'saqka, who asks him how and why he caused the illness of the person. The shade of the conjurer then relates how he did this wrong, and the reason therefor, and he is then told to restore him to health. If the conjurer promises to do this, all is well, and the patient is expected to recover in a short time.

If the conjurer refuses to comply with the demands of the tshi'saqka, the latter asks for a cedar knife, which the assistant throws into the

structure, when the Miqkä'no takes it and stabs the conjurer's shade to death. The bloody knife is then thrown out into the crowd, but it falls on the ground without touching any one, no matter how large the crowd may be. As the knife falls near one of the friends or relations of the sick, the person is by this token called on to kill the conjurer. In a short time, perhaps after a lapse of several weeks, the conjurer is found in his own wigwam stabbed to death.

When the tutelary daimon of the conjurer reveals the nature of the remedies used by him in having caused the illness of any one, he often reveals the remedy necessary to cure him; then the tshi'saqka may prepare it and give it himself. People always pay the tshi'saqka in presents of cloth, robes, furs, or any other objects which they may possess and which may be regarded by the tshi'saqka as a satisfactory return for his services.

The method of removing disease by sucking the cause thereof through bone tubes has been fully described in my paper on the Ojibwa Mide'wiwin, before mentioned. The juggler, after taking a vapor bath, returns to his everyday wigwam, seats himself upon a blanket, and awaits the arrival of the patient, if the latter is in condition to be brought.

When the patient is laid down near the juggler, the latter has also before him a basin or bowl containing some water, and several bone tubes varying in length from 2 to 5 inches, and from one-third to onehalf an inch in diameter. An assistant drums upon the tambourine drum, as the juggler uses the rattle with one hand, while with the other he grasps a tube which he places over the part of the patient's body affected by the presence of a demon, or by some substance put there by another sorcerer, juggler, or wâ'beno. After chanting for a short time, the operator places his mouth to the tube and sucks violently; then assuming his former position he strikes the bone, which projects from his mouth, with the palm of his hand and apparently drives it down his throat. Then he goes through a similar performance until the disappearance of the second, the third, and every other tube that he may have. After considerable contortion and retching, he pretends to vomit into the basin the poison which had been extracted from the patient, the bones also making their appearance.

Alexander Henry, who was among the Ojibwa Indians at Mackinaw, and also through the surrounding country, over one hundred years ago, says:

I was once present at a performance of this kind, in which the patient was a female child of about 12 years of age. Several of the elder chiefs were invited to the scene, and the same compliment was paid to myself on account of the medical skill for which it was pleased to give me credit.

The physician (so to call him) seated himself on the ground, and before him, on a new stroud blanket, was placed a basin of water, in which were three bones, the larger ones, as it appeared to me, of a swan's wing. In his hand he had his shishiquoi, or rattle, with which he beat time to his medicine-song. The sick child lay

on a blanket near the physician. She appeared to have much fever and a severe oppression of the lungs, breathing with difficulty, and betraying symptoms of the last stage of consumption.

After singing for some time, the physician took one of the bones out of the basin. The bone was hollow, and one end being applied to the breast of the patient, he put the other into his mouth, in order to remove the disorder by suction. Having persevered in this as long as he thought proper, he suddenly seemed to force the bone into his mouth and swallow it. He now acted the part of one suffering severe pain, but presently finding relief he made a long speech, and after this returned to singing and to the accompaniment of his rattle. With the latter, during his song, he struck his head, breast, sides, and back, at the same time straining as if to vomit forth the bone.

Relinquishing this attempt, he applied himself to suction a second time, and with the second of the three bones; and this also he soon seemed to swallow.

Upon its disappearance he began to distort himself in the most frightful manner, using every gesture which could convey the idea of pain. At length he succeeded, or pretended to succeed, in throwing up one of the bones. This was handed about to the spectators and strictly examined, but nothing remarkable could be discovered. Upon this, he went back to his song and rattle, and after some time threw up the second of the two bones. In the groove of this the physician, upon examination, found and displayed to all present a small white substance resembling a piece of the quill of a feather. It was passed round the company, from one to the other, and declared by the physician to be the thing causing the disorder of his patient.

The multitude believe that these physicians, whom the French call jongleurs, or jugglers, can inflict as well as remove disorders. They believe that by drawing the figure of any person in sand or ashes, or on clay, or by considering any object as the figure of a person, and then pricking it with a sharp stick or other substance, or doing in any other manner that which done to a living body would cause pain or injury, the individual represented, or supposed to be represented, will suffer accordingly. On the other hand, the mischief being done, nother physician, of equal pretensions, can by suction remove it. Unfortunately, however, the operations which I have described were not successful in the instance referred to, for on the day after they had taken place the girl died.'

The office of "rainmaker" is also held by a conspicuous juggler, when one of sufficient ability is supposed to abide with the tribe. When in times of great drought the chief demands rain for the benefit of the crops and disappearing streams, the juggler is commanded to cause the necessary rainfall; or, when too much rain has fallen, his powers are likewise called into requisition to stay the storm. The rainmaker is found in various tribes in which but little evidence of the existence of other pretenders is met with, though reference is made by Father Juan Bautista, in a work published at Mexico, as early as the year 1600,2 that

There are magicians who call themselves teciuhtlazque, and also by the term nanahualtin, who conjure the clouds when there is danger of hail, so that the crops may not be injured. They can also make a stick look like a serpent, a mat like a centipede, a piece of stone like a scorpion, and similar deceptions. Others of these nanahualtin will transform themselves to all appearances (segun la aparencia), into a tiger, a dog, or a weasel. Others again will take the form of an owl, a cock, or a

1 Travels and Adventures (1760-1776), pp. 119-121, New York, 1809.

2 Quoted from Brinton's Nagualism, A Study in Native American Folk-Lore and History, in Proc. Am. Philosoph. Soc., vol. xxxiii, p. 14, Philadelphia, 1894.

weasel; and when one is preparing to seize them, they will appear now as a cock, now as an owl, and again as a weasel. These call themselves nanahualtin.

In this connection it may be said that the powers of both the juggler and the wâ'beno of the Algonquian tribes appear to be combined. It it is quite probable, however, that more specific distinctions might have been observed to exist between the two professions had more thorough investigation and careful discrimination been made, though this is always a difficult proceeding with shamans when attempted by ecclesiastics, the so-called agents of the Kishä' Ma'nido of a common enemy.

THE WA'BENO

The term wâ'beno has been explained by various intelligent Indians as signifying "men of the dawn," "eastern men," etc. The profession of the wâ'beno has not been thoroughly understood and little mention of it has been made by authors, but from personal investigation it has been ascertained that a wâ'beno does not affiliate with others of his class so as to constitute a society, but indulges in his pretensions individually. A wâ'beno is primarily prompted by dreams or visions which may occur during his youth, for which purpose he leaves his village to fast for an indefinite number of days. It is positively affirmed that evil ma'nidos favor his desires, and apart from his general routine of furnishing "hunting medicine," "love powders," etc, he pretends also to practice medical magic. When a hunter has been successful through the supposed aid of the wâ'beno, he supplies the latter with part of the game; then, in giving a feast to his tutelary daimon, the wâ'beno will invite a number of friends, but all who desire to come are welcome. This feast is given at night; singing and dancing are boisterously indulged in, and the wâ'beno, to sustain his reputation, entertains his visitors with a further exhibition of his skill. Through the use of plants he is alleged to be enabled to take up and handle with impunity red-hot stones and burning brands, and without evincing the slightest discomfort it is said that he will bathe his hands in boiling water, or even in boiling sirup. On account of such performances, the general impression prevails among the Indians that the wâ'beno is a "dealer in fire," or a "fire handler." Such exhibitions always terminate at the approach of day.

The wa'beno is believed to appear at times in the guise of various animals, in which form he may inflict injuries on an individual for whose destruction he has received a fee. At night he may be seen fying rapidly along in the shape of a ball of fire, or of a pair of fiery sparks, like the eyes of some monstrous beast.

The nahual or sorcerer of Mexico of the present day is accredited by the lower classes with similar powers. Orozco y Berra' says:

The nahual is generally an old Indian with red eyes, who knows how to turn himself into a dog, woolly, black, and ugly. The female which can convert herself into

'Historia Antigua de Mexico, vol. ii, 25. (Quoted from Brinton's Nagualism, op. cit. p. 18.)

a ball of fire; she has the power of flight, and at night will enter the windows and suck the blood of little children. These sorcerers will make little images of rags or of clay; then stick into them the thorn of the maguey and place them in some secret place. You can be sure that the person against whom the conjuration is practiced will feel pain in the part where the thorn is inserted.

The number of these pretenders who are not members of the Mide'wiwin is very limited. For instance, there are at present but two or three at White Earth reservation and none at Leech lake. As a general rule, however, the wâ'beno will seek entrance into the Mide'wiwin when he becomes more of a specialist in the practice of medical magic, incantations, and the exorcism of malevolent ma'nidos.

Concerning the wâ'beno, Reverend Peter Jones' says:

Witches and wizards are persons supposed to possess the agency of familiar spirits, from whom they receive power to inflict diseases on their enemies, prevent the good luck of the hunter, and the success of the warrior. They are believed to fly invisibly at pleasure from place to place; to turn themselves into bears, wolves, foxes, owls, bats, and snakes. Such metamorphoses they pretend to accomplish by putting on the skins of these animals, at the same time crying and howling in imitation of the creature they wish to represent. Several of our people have informed me that they have seen and heard witches in the shape of these animals, especially the bear and the fox. They say that when a witch in the shape of a bear is being chased, all at once she will run round a tree or a hill, so as to be lost sight of for a time by her pursuers; and then, instead of seeing a bear, they behold an old woman walking quietly along, or digging up roots, and looking as innocent as a lamb. The fox witches are known by the flame of fire which proceeds out of their mouths every time they bark.

This belief in the transformation of the wa'beno into some animate form, under which disguise he may inflict injury on his victim and immediately thereafter resume his natural form, is still very prevalent among the primitive Menomini, and frequently I have had considerable difficulty in persuading some of the younger men to accompany me through a forest, after nightfall, either in going to, or returning from, ceremonies at which I was to be in attendance.

The tricks accredited to the wâ'beno are numerous, and often exceed. ingly romantic. The following performance is said to have occurred at White Earth, Minnesota, in the presence of a large gathering of Indians and mixed bloods. Two small wigwams were erected, about 50 paces from each other, and after the wâ'beno had crawled into one of them his disparagers built around each of the structures a continuous heap of brush and firewood, which was then kindled. When the blaze was at its height all became hushed for a moment. Presently the wâ'beno called to the crowd that he had transferred himself to the other wigwam, and immediately, to their profound astonishment, crawled forth therefrom unharmed.

Charlevoix alludes to certain magic of the Indians which be refers to the juggling; but as all shamans were, at the time of the description, designated jugglers, and as no specific name wás suggested for

History of the Ojebway Indians, p. 145.