Mr F. W. Hodge,' who has conducted researches among the several Pueblo tribes of New Mexico and Arizona, has given an account of a Zuni footrace. "The great races of the Zuñi," says the author, "and those in which the chief interest is centered, occur after the planting, the time when nearly all the men are at leisure. In selecting the partici pants in these races, the swiftest-footed of the young men of the northern half of the pueblo are matched against those of the southern, or the western half against the eastern. The number of racers on a side varies from three to six, and the degree of interest taken in the contest depends on the reputation of those engaged in it, and particularly on the extent to which betting has been indulged in."

In this Zuñi race many little preliminaries are arranged, and certain precautions taken so as to insure a satisfactory condition of the participants, both hygienically and also from a religious point of view.

The chief feature of the race is the kicking of sticks, which the leader of each side places across his foot at the base of the toes. These sticks are rounded and of the size of the middle finger; they are picked up with the toes and kicked forward, when one of the set, or partners, of the one kicking, renews the feat, keeping up rapid speed. Mr Hodge says the distance covered by one race was 25 miles, and the time consumed only two hours.

It is well known that the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico are so named from their custom of racing while driving before them a wooden ball by means of the feet alone. It is said that frequently 70 or 80 miles are thus covered in a single race.

Canoe races frequently occurred among the Menomini; but of late, it must be said, little interest is manifested in athletic sports of any kind.

TOBACCO AND SHAWANO DANCES

Apart from the dances indulged in by certain individuals in connection with cult ceremonials, there are two dances which are much esteemed as affording great pleasure and excitement. One of these is termed the Tobacco dance, the other the Shawano dance, for the latter is believed to have been introduced by the Shawnee, with which tribal designation the word is synonymous, signifying "southern" or "southerner," that tribe having lived to the south of the Menomini.

PIPES AND TOBACCO

Nearly every Indian is a smoker, and smoking is engaged in whenever he has nothing better to do. Pipes used at this day consist of various kinds procured from trading establishments; but, if obtainable, the native pipes, made of stone, are greatly preferred, because they were the pipes of their ancestors and because the bore is deeper and narrower than is found in the modern briar and clay pipe bowls. The native pipe bowl is usually double the height of the modern article,

1 American Anthropologist, July, 1890, pp. 227-231.

being from 1 to 4 inches from top to bottom; the main stem, from near the middle of which the bowl rises, is from 4 to 8 inches in length, becoming narrower, laterally, toward the front. The stem is bored from the rear to the center of the bowl, through which a similar hole is drilled from the top, to intersect or unite with the former. This perforation averages one-third of an inch in diameter, while the bowl orifice becomes slightly larger toward the top.

Catlinite or red pipestone pipes were formerly obtained by the Menomini through barter from their western neighbors, this substance being found only near the town of Pipestone, Minnesota. A small bowl of this material is represented in figure 32. The specimen illustrated was formerly the property of Tecumtha, by whom it was presented to a member of the family of Mr Gauthier, interpreter at Keshena, Wisconsin. It is now in the National Museum. Another variety of pipe found especially among the southern bands of Menomini-those living nearer the Ojibwa at Lac Court Oreille and Lac Flambeau-are made of a dark, greenish-black mineral

obtained in northeastern Minnesota. An example is illustrated in figure 33.

L

Frequently the upper portion of the pipe is carved, the depressions afterward being filled with block tin or lead. Quite a degree of taste and skill is shown in some of these pipes, the stems, which are made of ash or other wood, being frequently ornamented by carvings, decorations in color, and beads. Some of the stems are broad, measuring from 1 to 2 inches across, and are only half an inch thick. At each of the ends is a cylindrical projection, half an inch in diameter, the lower to be inserted into the pipe bowl, while the other forms the mouthpiece.

The pith is removed from these stems by passing through them a piece of wire, usually made red hot so as to burn and harden the aperture. Some Indians, more expert than others, occasionally produce curious effects and cause astonishment by cutting away certain portions of the stem along the middle broad part, the openings extending almost across from side to side, and thus naturally renewing the continuity of the orifice. As no marks upon the exterior are visible to the casual observer, it seems quite a puzzle to understand how the smoke passes from the bowl to the smoker's mouth, for between these two points circles, squares, or perhaps other figures, are cut out, as above described. On careful examination it may be observed, and perhaps it may also require the assistance of the carver to learn, that holes are drilled or burned from the side or edge of the stem to intersect the main orifice, all superfluous openings being carefully plugged with wood of the same species.

The orifice along the edge of the stem, from end to end, is made by splitting off a piece half an inch or so in width, then cutting a crease or groove along the main part to connect the two short transverse burned holes which run into the main or original orifice, when the detached piece is again carefully secured to the stem by gluing. After the stem is completed and polished, or decorated by discoloration or by burning, the union of the two pieces is extremely difficult to detect, if it can be detected at all. Thus the smoke passes around the interior through an orifice having four angles or turns.

This is an example of only an ordinarily decorated stem. Sometimes the manufacture of the stem is even more complicated by a greater number of designs in carving, or the removal of certain portions, thus increasing the turns and angles of the orifice through which the smoke passes.

Having had occasion to speak of pipes and the importance of ceremonial smoking, it may not be inappropriate to treat more fully of the subject of tobacco, as well as of the substitutes for tobacco and the peculiar manner of using them.

Since the introduction of manufactured tobacco, most Indians purchase inferior grades of granular mixtures, they being the more readily obtained. Plug tobacco is preferred when it can be procured, but this is generally mixed by them with the native product. In former times the leaves of the sumach (Rhus glabra Wood, and R. aromatica Ait) were gathered and dried, being subsequently ground between the left palm and the ball of the right thumb, the latter projecting beyond the clinched fist. Frequently, when the leaves were very dry, both palms were employed to give a handful of leaves the primary crushing, the hands being used as in the act of washing. This mixture contains a large quantity of tannic acid, and its use generally produces bronchial irritation.

The substance generally employed by the Menomini for smoking, and one found abundantly in many parts of the northern temperate por

tions of North America, is the red osier (Cornus stolonifera Michx.), commonly designated by frontiersmen as kil'likinik', or kin'nikinik'. The word is from the language of the Dakota, by which nation it is more properly designated tsha"'shasha, "red-wood." The name adopted by the Menomini is the former one, the word perhaps having been obtained by them directly from whites and Canadian Indians who frequented the territory west of the Mississippi, where it was used very extensively, especially in mixture with plug tobacco. The shoots of a year's growth, and the older branches if still retaining the red epidermis, were preferred. This thin, semitransparent epidermis was scraped off by passing the edge of a sharp knife-blade longitudinally over the stem; then the back of the blade was employed in scraping from the ligneous portion of the branch the cellular integument-the rather soft, brittle green portion of the bark. This was dried generally for future use, for, although smoked at nearly all times, it was deemed better for use in winter, as the Indians believed it to be "heating," meaning by the phrase that it sometimes was more liable to cause slight dizziness or fullness of the head-an effect attributable more to the adulteration of the tobacco furnished them than to the astringency of the bark.

The third variety of native tobacco consisted of the leaves of Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Spreng., commonly known in medicine as uva-ursi, and as an excellent diuretic; but by the Dakota Indians, from whom it was formerly obtained, it is designated as waqpe' tsha"shasha-literallyleaf red-wood." This is a low-growing evergreen shrub, which bears oblong leaves not over an inch in length. Its habitat is chiefly along Yellowstone river in Montana, and southeastward in the badlands along the boundary between Montana and South Dakota. During the writer's residence among the Dakota Indians in 1872-73, a small cigarboxful of the leaves was regarded as worth an Indian pony, practically equal to $20, and, for obvious reasons, but few Indians could indulge in this luxury.

This substance was prepared for smoking during the summer months, as it was then less liable to produce a sense of fullness in the head. The Menomini sometimes obtain these leaves at apothecary shops, but as the cost is greater than for an equal amount of tobacco, the latter is more generally used.

Red-osier bark is prepared for smoking by laying a small handful of it on a piece of board, and whilst holding the curly shavings down with the left hand, the ends projecting toward the right are cut off with a large knife by passing the handle up and down without lifting the point of the blade from the board. The motion of cutting is thus similar to that in using a small fodder-cutter; each time the blade is raised from the board the mass of bark is pushed under it as it descends, the bark being therefore really minced. Two parts of the bark are carefully mixed with one part of granular or similarly hashed plug tobacco, when it is ready for the tobacco pouch. Enough for only one day's use is prepared at a time.

When an Indian desires to smoke, a pipeful of the tobacco mixture is placed on the left palm, and worked with the ball of the thumb, or perhaps with the tips of the united fingers and thumb, after which it is put in the bowl and gently packed down by means of a pipe-stick. This implement is made of ash, cedar, or some other choice wood, and is from 8 to 10 inches in length, one-third of an inch thick at the top, gracefully narrowing to within an inch from the lower end, where it curves to a blunt tip. The leaves of the uva-ursi also are broken or cut, and mixed with either of the above-named varieties of tobacco in the proportion of one of the former to three or four of the latter.

When several Menomini are sitting together for social purposes, smoking is individual, and no offer of a pipe by one to another is made, unless the latter desires a whiff, or may perhaps be without his own pipe. When sitting in council and having in hand the consideration of tribal affairs or deliberations relative to important social secrets, or when participating in ritualistic ceremonials, the smoker who fills the pipe hands it to his right-hand neighbor to light. The latter individual takes a few whiffs at intervals, inhaling each mouthful, after which the pipe is passed back to the owner at the left, who then takes several whiffs, when he passes it to the next person to his left. In this manner the pipe continues on its way around the circle, always to the left, until the bowl of tobacco is exhausted. He who concludes the smoking knocks out the ashes and hands the pipe to its owner.

During the passage of the pipe silence is maintained, and if any conversation becomes necessary, it is conducted only in a whisper.

At various intervals of ceremonial smokes, especially during the smoking preliminary to prayers or chants, puffs of smoke are directed toward the four cardinal points as well as toward the abode of the wind gods, or the zenith-the abode of Kishä' Ma'nido-and toward the earth, the abode of the material parts of their deceased friends and relations. The true Indian pipestem usually terminates in a cylindrical mouthpiece an inch or more in length and from one-fourth to one-third of an inch in diameter. When smoking, an Indian does not put this part into his mouth, as we are accustomed to doing, thus moistening it with saliva, but he will press it between the lips, and as the stem enters the mouth the outer and dry portion of the lips follow, so that the stem does not become moist. In sucking the stem and gaining a mouthful of smoke, the lips are slightly parted-at either side or toward the corner of the mouth-and air inhaled so as to mix with and pass down the throat into and filling the lungs. The slight sound of rushing air which is heard forms an essential part of Indian etiquette, for it is indicative of satisfaction and enjoyment. After a moment's suspense the contents of the lungs and air passages are exhaled, the smoke issuing from the mouth as well as in two distinct volumes from the nostrils.

The question may be asked as to the reason of the inhalation. This may be answered, because, first, the supply of tobacco is usually very