left open, and the top of each sapling on a given side is then bound down over its opposite fellow to form a roof somewhat resembling a wagon top, as in figure 34. Horizontal saplings are then bound around the framework to make the structure secure, and over all are laid, longitudinally, a series of long strips of pine bark, the upper pieces overlapping those below, while a large piece is placed over the highest part of the roof, which thus sheds the rain or melting snow. This part completed, the end of the wigwam is protected by other pieces of bark placed slantingly against the side. To keep out mosquitoes, smudges are built at one or both ends of these lodges, that the smoke may be carried through the structure. The bedding is spread on the ground, and usually covers the entire floor.

Sometimes a so-called lean-to is built for short occupancy, or even for a single night's shelter from rain or dew. This variety of structure is made generally by laying short poles against a fallen tree trunk, the extreme pieces being about 6 or 7 feet apart; other poles or branches. are then placed transversely upon these, and this rude framework is finally covered with brush and leaves.

Occasionally winter habitations of bark are constructed like those shown in plate XVIII.

Another form of Menomini shelter which may again be referred to is the sweat-lodge, resorted to by those who may feel indisposed, or by the shamans previously to undertaking any serious or difficult task. This variety of structure resembles a huge beehive, but may be a little less conical in shape. An illustration (plate XI) of the sweatlodge has already been given in connection with the ceremonies of the Mitä wit.

The tshi'saqkan or jugglery also has been described and illustrated (figure 20) in connection with the subject of that class of shamans. It is simply a large funnel-shape lodge, constructed of vertical poles with horizontal branches lashed on to serve as hoops, so to say. Over this frame birchbark, matting, or cloth is wrapped to hide the actions of the operator within. A ceremonial wigwam closely related to this is the previously mentioned mitä'wiko'mik or medicine-lodge, represented in several forms in plates VI and XII and figures 5 and 9, which illustrate the different structures used during the annual performances.

OTHER STRUCTURES

Some of the more thrifty Indians erect, for use as stables, small log buildings with flat roofs of saplings covered with branches, straw, and earth. To the stable a small corral, consisting of vertical saplings, is attached to prevent the escape of the animals.

Poultry houses measuring from 6 to 8 feet square, built of logs with board roofs, are also common among the Menomini.

In recent years fences have been erected. These are usually either of posts or of clapboards, though many of the fields are inclosed by

"worm" fences. Sometimes vertical stakes are planted, saplings and branches being then entwined until the fence forms a veritable hedge.

FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS

BEDS

The recesses on each side of the longitudinal passageway of the Menomini wigwam are utilized for beds and bedding. Sometimes the ground is covered with pine boughs, over which the blankets and other bedding are thrown; but when the structure is to be occupied for a longer period than that covered by the sugar-making, or if the wigwam is intended to remain for more than one season, then a permanent platform, resembling a trundle bed, is erected, as shown in figure 35. Whenever possible, boards are laid across the head and foot poles of

FIG. 35-Bedstead of saplings.

this primitive bedstead, thus making

a comfortable platform on which to deposit and arrange the bedding and robes.

These beds consist of four short crotched poles, which form the legs, and on these are laid other poles to give it the ordinary size in length and breadth, though this frame is only from a foot to a foot and a half from the floor. Over the bed frame are placed boards or slats, upon which straw bags and a mattress are laid.

In some houses may be found an abundance of mosquito netting, for mosquitoes in the Menomini country are very annoying, especially in wet The material is placed over the bedstead as well as over the floor bedding, where children or the men sleep, and the windows and doors also are sometimes covered with it.

seasons.

STOVES

Modern stoves are now used by nearly all the Menomini; but if these get out of order or beyond their control, the women resort to the custom in vogue before the whites came, of building a fire outdoors and suspending over it the kettle.

UTENSILS

Most of the dishes which they now use are made by the whites, though a few wooden spoons and ladles of native make are occasionally used by them. Musselshells also were formerly used as spoons, and their knives and axes were of stone. The Indians agree in the statement that the making of stone weapons was discontinued by them four generations ago. Shu'nien remembers hearing the old people speak

'During a tour of Nevada and Arizona in 1871, the writer saw stone arrowpoints and knives still in use by the Chemehuevi and Walapai and by the Apache at Camp Apache. The arrow points used by the Apache at that time were made by themselves, and a number of specimens then obtained consisted of chert, obsidian, and bottle-glass, and a single specimen was of gold quartz. Arrowpoints fashioned from hoop-iron were also in use at that time. See pages 281-284.