apt in acquiring the words of a chant, never before heard by them, to join after two or three repetitions and assist as if they had known it always. Thus these strangers unconsciously acquire a vocabulary at first of unknown meaning to them, but by repetition and association with actions and familiar gestures they ultimately become sufficiently advanced to comprehend the new language limited to this ceremonial.

From the foregoing remarks it will be observed that the ceremonials of the cult societies may be tinctured, to greater or less degree, by the intrusion of extra-tribal ritualistic traditions and beliefs, the ceremonial forms of the Ojibwa, however, being considerably in excess of those of any other tribe.

For many years there has been constant intercourse between the Menomini and the Ojibwa of Lac Court Oreille and Lac Flambeau, on account of occasional intermarriage between these tribes and the mutual attendance at the cult ceremonies. It appears probable, also, that on account of this intercourse the Menomini ritual of the Mitä'wit, or Grand Medicine society, has been very perceptibly molded after the Ojibwa, but that during this process of adaptation much of the ancient ritual has been lost.

A great portion of the phraseology of the Ojibwa ritual is in an archaic form of language, and is thus unintelligible to the ordinary Indian, and frequently to many members of the society. This archaic phraseology naturally appears impressive and important to the general populace, and the shamans delight to dwell on such phrases, during ceremonials, not only to impress their hearers but to elevate themselves as well.

Honorable W. W. Warren, in his History of the Ojibwa Indians, says: In the Me-da-we rite is incorporated most that is ancient amongst them-songs and traditions that have descended, not orally, but in hieroglyphics, for at least a long line of generations. In this rite is also perpetuated the purest and most ancient idioms of their language, which differs somewhat from that of the common everyday use.1

The Menomini ceremonies of the same society are, as above stated, very much curtailed, and apparently worn down by careless transmis. sion from generation to generation. The chants are, in general, in Menomini, though that portion of the ritual pertaining to the Indian cosmogony and genesis of mankind is to a great extent mixed with Ojibwa words, and is therefore unintelligible to almost every one save those familiar with this language.

It has already been shown with what persistency the Menomini and the Winnebago Indians have dwelt side by side from the earliest historical times, and it is a subject of interest to know with what surprising similarity these two tribes have, up to a recent period, conducted their medicine ceremonials. The entire ritual and its dramatization appear to be of Algonquian elaboration; and the adaptation thereof

1 Coll. Minnesota Hist. Soc., vol. v, 1885, p. 67.

by the Winnebago, a tribe belonging to another linguistic stock, would be so readily accomplished only when the tribes are in constant and intimate communication.1

The Ojibwa embellishments in the Winnebago ritual appear to have been acquired through the intermediary of the Menomini rather than from the Ojibwa direct, as the Siouan tribes in general have at all times been more or less antagonistic to the Algonquian tribes, and vice versa, excepting the Menomini, who appear always to have been of a peaceful disposition.

There is another class of mystery men, or shamans, differing from the mitä", of which representatives are found among nearly all the Algonquian tribes even at this day. Such persons are termed tshi'saqka, or jugglers, and are referred to in the Jesuit Relations as jougleurs and sorciers. The Nepissing Indians of Canada were even designated the Nation of Sorcerers as early as 1632, and the tales recited regarding them and their powers are of the most marvelous character. This subject will be more definitely referred to in connec tion with the subject the of tshi'saqka. There is no special organization among these performers, each preferring to act independently of the other, and it is only during the performance of the invocation of guardians or ma'nidos that pretended conversation with the latter takes place, such pretended conversation consisting in reality of a soliloquy, the questions of the juggler being answered apparently in another tone of voice and indeed sometimes in mumbled words wholly unintelligible in character.

The language employed by a juggler is the language of the tribe of which he is a member; and to acquire the power of prophecy and to become able to cause manifestations of various kinds, it is necessary to receive instruction from some one of reputed skill. His power is furthermore dependent upon the reputed power of his personal maʼnido, or tutelary daimon, which was selected by him in accordance with dreams, consequent upon fasting, which ordeal was experienced during his youth.

There is still another class of shamans, known as the wa'beno, i. e., "daylight men," or "men of the dawn," who pretend to cure disease by the administration of charmed remedies. The number of wâ'benōak as compared with the mitä'wok is small, the whole number in the Menomini tribe not exceeding ten or twelve. Singular as it may seem, there are more women wâ'benoak than men, though it appears that in former times the reverse was the case. The performances consisted in handling burning brands and live coals with apparent immunity from harm, thus gaining the attention and confidence of the credulous, after which their charms, amulets, or fetishes were sold, as

1 Since writing the above, Mr Frank La Flesche, of Washington, son of the late Joseph La Flesche, one of the chiefs of the Omaha Indians, informs me that his tribe acquired the ritual of the Grand Medicine society from the Winnebago.

required by the unsuccessful hunter, the disconsolate lover, or the unlucky gambler.

No organization exists between the different pers ns of this class, each practicing his art, or pretensions, as best he may. A tambourine drum is necessary as an accompaniment to the chant, as the personal manido is thus invoked for aid in the accomplishment of whatever task may have been assigned to the performer. More specific mention of the method of practice of these shamans will be presented under the cap tion of "The Wa'beno."

Since the advent of the Paiute messiah," Jack Wilson," a new society has been organized, designated the "Dreamers' society," i. e., a society for indulgence in drumming, dancing, and exhortation by certain designated persons, to form the order of exercises. Some of the mitä 'wok, who, for various reasons, have left the Medicine society, claim that the Dreamers' society is founded on a ritual specially granted by Kisha' Ma'nido as a substitute for the former, that being alleged to have become degraded and debased by the introduction of innovations. Inquiry into the history of the society seems to indicate, however, that the performances by the Dreamers' society are a remote imitation of the Ghost dance, which originated several years since when the Paiute messiah made his appearance, and when many discontented and belligerent young men of various tribes took advantage of the craze to further their own designs.

Some Menomini Indians more communicative than others have intimated that a time would surely come when the whole country would be restored to the Indian as it once was, when the heads of all the whites would be severed from their bodies as a scythe cuts the wheat. This belief has always had a greater or less number of believers who were in a state of expectancy, so that when a delegation of Sioux and other Menomini river Indians arrived among the Menomini to preach the doctrine of the messiah and to give instruction in the dance, the expectant ones were ready to accept almost anything that appealed to their indefinite and unformed tradition. The ceremony conducted at these dances is not of the same character as that of the Ghost dance of the prairie Indians, sufficient change having been wrought since its introduction to prevent any apparent analogy between the two.

To further illustrate the quickness with which such advantages for deception may be embraced by designing and deceitful Indians, I shall only recur to Sitting Bull of the Sioux nation, a medicine man of no mean order-as viewed by his people-but not a chief in the full sense of the word, as generally supposed from the newspaper notoriety given him. During my residence among these Indians in 1872-73, I had ample opportunity to become well acquainted with him, particularly after acquiring the language and an ultimate adoption into the "Buffalo society," by which means a "brotherhood" was formed with Running Antelope, then orator of the northern Sioux and chief of the Uncpapa branch of that tribe.

Sitting Bull was general director of the discontented element of the Sioux nation, and acquired his influence by his audacious pretensions and by the coincident occurrence of events of minor importance, as well as by the occurrence of certain atmospheric changes which he had, in part, prophesied. Attaining some distinction in this manner, he cautiously pushed his claim to greater powers, stating that he was enabled to foretell events affecting himself and his adherents. He pretended that his deceased half-brother always appeared to him in the guise of a gray wolf to warn him of any impending personal danger. In fact, this man is said to have once gone so far as to allow himself to be discov ered by some officers talking to a wolf which had, in utter astonishment, stopped to learn the source and nature of the peculiar noise which so suddenly broke the silence of the locality!

When the attack was made upon our cavalry escort in 1873, in Yellowstone valley, Sitting Bull was foremost in the approaching line, chanting and making medicine," but when one of his chief assistants was shot down the line wavered and broke the moment the troops charged. Later on, as the Ghost dance became a better means of having his aids act the part of prophets, Sitting Bull's words were promulgated through the mouths of the chief dancers who had apparently fainted and reached an ecstatic state. In this wise the hostility of a certain portion of the tribe was maintained and controlled, chiefly for personal gain, until the death of Sitting Bull, when the spell was broken.

Until quite recently it was customary for each Indian youth to pass through a certain process of "fasting and dreaming," whereby he might receive a manifestation from the Great Unknown as to what particular animate form he might adopt as his own tutelary daimon, as termed by the Greeks, or, as more familiarly designated, his guardian mystery. The course of procedure necessary for the young aspirant for honors to pursue was to leave the camp and go into the forest, there to remain in meditation, abstaining from all food, until gradual exhaustion produced that condition of ecstasy during which various forms of animals, or birds, appeared to him. The first of these forms to clearly impress itself on his mind was adopted as the special gift of the Great Mystery, and was thereafter supposed to act as an adviser in times of indecision; a monitor when the Indian was in danger, or an intercessor with the superior ma'nidos when special power or influence was desired. During the period of probation the lad's friends or parents would keep watch that no danger overtook him while in the forest, and furthermore, that his fasting was not carried to the point of danger to life and health.

Among some of the Algonquian tribes the animal or bird forms that may thus be adopted by an Indian are sometimes the same as the totem of which he is a member. Under such circumstances the animal representing the totem, and the "familiar" or ma'nido, is seldom hunted or

shot; but should he be permitted to hunt such an animal the hunter will first address the animal and ask forgiveness for killing him, telling him that certain portions, which are tabu, shall be set up in the place of honor in the wiko'mik. For instance, should an Indian of the Bear totem, or one whose adopted guardian is represented by the bear, desire to go hunting and meet with that animal, due apology would be paid to it before destroying it. The carcass would then be dressed and served, but no member of the Bear totem would partake of the meat, though the members of all other totems could freely do so. The hunter could, however, eat of the paws and head, the bones of the latter being subsequently placed upon a shelf, probably over the door, or in some other conspicuous place. Due reverence is paid to such a relic of the totem, and so strictly observed is this custom that no greater insult could be offered to the host than for anyone to take down such bones and to cast them carelessly aside.

Due reverence must be had by the Indian for his so-called guardian or ma'nido, neglect in this direction sometimes being considered as the direct cause of misfortune or sickness. A feast then becomes necessary as an offering to induce the maʼnido to return and to again manifest its favor to the Indian. Without going further into this special subject, as it obtains among the tribe under discussion, it may be interesting to present in this connection an account of the striking similarity of belief in the maʼnido, or nagual, of the Mexicans, as given by Herrera, who, in speaking of the religion and superstitions of the inhabitants of Cerquin, in Honduras, says:

Among the many Idols worshipp'd, there was one call'd, The great Father, and another, The great Mother, of whom they begg'd Health; to other Gods they pray'd for Wealth, Relief in Distress, to supply them with Provisions, breed up their Children, preserve their Harvest, and assist them in their Improvements, which Superstitions continu'd long among the old Men; and the Devil deluded them, appearing in the Shape of a Lion, or a Tiger, or a Coyte, a Beast like a Wolf, or in the Shape of an Alligator, a Snake, or a Bird, that Province abounding in Creatures of Prey, which they call'd Naguales, signifying, Keepers, or Guardians, and when the Bird dy'd the Indian that was in League with him dy'd also, which often hapned, and was looked upon as infallible. The manner of contracting this Alliance was thus, the Indian repair'd to the River, Wood, Hill, or most obscure Place, where he call'd upon the Devils by such Names as he thought fit, talk'd to the Rivers, Rocks, or Woods, said, he went to weep, that he might have the same his Predecessors had, carrying a Cock, or a Dog to sacrifice. In that melancholy fit he fell a sleep, and either in a Dream, or Waking, saw some one of the aforesaid Birds, or other Creatures, whom he intreated to grant him Profit in Salt, Cacao, or any other Commodity, drawing Blood from his own Tongue, Ears, and other Parts of his Body, making his Contract at the same Time with the said Creature, the which, either in a Dream, or Waking, told him,

'The Abbé J. A. Maurauit says of the totemic marks of the Abnaki: "Chaque tribu avait ses armoiries, que consistaient en la figure d'un animal, ou d'un oiseau, ou d'un poisson. Chaque guerrier peignait ordinairement sur ses bras, ses jambes et sa poitrine les armes de sa tribu. Quant les sauvages allaient en voyage ou en excursion, ils peignaient leurs armes sur des arbres à chaque campement, surtout lorsqu'ils avaient réussi dans quelque campagne. Ils faisaient aussi connaître, par ce moyen, le nombre de leurs prisonniers et celui des chevelures qu'ils avaient levées."-Hist. des Abenakis, Québec, 1866, p. 23.