merged, in May, 1849, with two other societies, viz., the "American Protestant Society," and the "Foreign Evangelical Society," in what has ever since been known as the "American and Foreign Christian Union," the objects of which are defined in its constitution to be, " by Missions, Colportage, the Press, and other appropriate agencies, to diffuse and promote the principles of Religious Liberty and a pure and Evangelical Christianity, both at home and abroad wherever a corrupted Christianity exists." A rescript" is the official answer, which the pope gives to any question in respect to discipline, &c. "The rescripts or decretal epistles of the popes to questions propounded upon emergent doubts relative to matters of discipline and ecclesiastical economy," constituted, as Hallam represents, one of the foundations of "the canon law," already described in Chapter III. The following translation of a rescript issued by the present pope respecting a translation of the Raccolta or Collection of Indulgenced Prayers, may serve as a specimen of their manner. Both the original rescript in Latin, and the English translation of the rescript are inserted in the book as translated and published by authority. "MOST BLESSED FATHER: "In order to promote thereby the piety of the faithful in England, Ambrose St. John, Priest of the Oratory of St. Philip Neri, in the Diocese of Birmingham, humbly prays for permission to print in English, translations of the book entitled Raccolta di Orazioni, &c., alle quali sono annesse le SS. Indulgenze, having first obtained the approbation of his Eminence, the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster; and also that the faithful who make use of this translation may gain all the Indulgences annexed to the original. "After an audience of the Holy Father, granted February 3, 1856, our most Holy Lord Pius IX., by Divine Providence Pope, on an application made by me, the undersigned Secretary of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, has of his goodness answered by Rescript in favor of the grace, according to the terms of the petition. provided the translation be made from the last Roman edi tion, and it being understood that the Decree printed at the end of this edition remains in full force. "Given at Rome from the House of the same Sacred Congregation, on the day and year aforesaid. "Gratis, without any payment on any plea whatever. AL. BARNABO, Secretary. "In the place of the seal. One other term may need, among Americans, a word of definition and explanation. A papal "constitution" is an authoritative and formal mandate of the pope. It "constitutes" or establishes the law of the case, and may be expressed in the form of a bull, letter, &c. Thus Pope Gregory XVI. cites as "constitutions" both the bull 66 Unigenitus" and the apostolical letters issued by Benedict XIII. for Italy and the adjacent islands. This meaning of "constitution" is derived from the old Roman application of the term to the decrees and decisions of the Roman emperors. Neither the ancient nor the modern Romans applied this term, as we now do, to the fundamental law of the state which defines the great rights, privileges, and duties of the citizens and of their government and officers. They have had no formal public document of this sort; and it is therefore certain that in all the long and terrible record of the injustice, rapacity, and cruelty of the imperial and pontifical rulers of Rome, there has been no opportunity for the Romans to complain, like many Americans, that their "constitutional rights" have been violated. CHAPTER V. THE CARDINALS AND ROMAN COURT. 99 The cardinals hold the highest dignity in the Roman church and court after the pope. The word "cardinal comes directly from the Latin adjective cardinalis, and this again from the Latin noun cardo (= a hinge; hence, figuratively, that upon which anything turns; the chief point, principal ciecumstance, or main one among things). We use the adjective cardinal" in the derivative or figurative sense of the later Latin, when we speak of the "cardinal" points of the compass, of the "cardinal" numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, &c.), of the "cardinal" virtues, &c. After the elevation of the bishops, especially of the metropolitan bishops, to a station of preeminent dignity and power, the metropolitan churches in Italy, Gaul, &c., were styled "cardinal" churches, and their ministers were also called "cardinals." About the 6th and 7th centuries the presbyters and deacons of Rome, who, with the concurrence of the magistrates and citizens of Rome, elected the bishop, were especially known as "cardinal" priests and deacons. The title "cardinal" was afterwards also applied to the seven suffragan bishops in the neighborhood of Rome, at Ostia, Porto, Santa Rufina, Sabina, Palestrina, Albano, and Frascati. In the 11th century the "cardinals of Rome" were these seven suffragan bishops, and the ministers of the 28 parishes or principal churches of the city. In April, 1059, a Roman synod under pope Nicholas II. passed a decree concerning the election of the Roman pontiff, which committed this to the "cardinal bishops" and "cardinal clerks" (that is, to the bishops and priests just named), with the assent of the emperor and of the clergy and people of Rome. But in consequence of complaints 6. and commotions consequent on this change in the mode of election, Alexander III., about a century later, enlarged the college of cardinals, by admitting into it other priests of high rank in Rome and elsewhere, the seven "palatine judges" as they were called, and probably also the cardinal deacons as leaders of the inferior clergy. Since the time of Alexander III., cardinals have chosen the pope without asking the assent or approbation of the clergy or people of Rome. In 1179, Alex ander III. issued a decree requiring the vote of two-thirds of the cardinals to make an election valid. The number of cardinals having varied at different times from 7 to 65 or 70. Sixtus V., in 1587, fixed the full number of cardinals at 70, namely, six bishops above-named (the sees of Porto and Santa Rufina are now united), 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons; but this number is seldom full. Most of the cardinal priests bear the title of some church in Rome, and the deacons of some hospital or chapel there. The cardinal priests may be bishops or archbishops of some diocese; but as cardinals they are only priests, and must call themselves such. The cardinal deacons may be priests; but they are looked upon as deacons, and are not to officiate publicly as priests. The cardinals are, therefore (in appearance), the representatives of the clergy of Rome. Thus cardinal Wiseman, who was archbishop of Westminster, and the seventh English cardinal, was only a cardinal priest, known at Rome as Cardinal St. Pudentiana and deriving his title from the Roman church of St. Pudentiana. Yet, although cardinals are almost exclusively clergymen, laymen may be and have been cardinals. Thus cardinal Albani, who managed the elections of popes Pius VIII., Leo XII., and Gregory XVI., was a layman unordained. When, about 20 years ago, Pius IX. filled up the sacred college by creating eight new cardinals, 54 of the whole number were Italians, six Frenchmen, three Austrians, two Spaniards, two Portuguese, one Belgian, one Englishman, one Prussian. This great preponderance of Italians still continues, as they constitute about three-fourths of the present number. For a long time bishops continued to take precedence of cardinals in councils; but at the Synod of Lyons in 1245 the precedence of all cardinals over all bishops was finally established. In 1630 Urban VIII. gave to the cardinals the title of "Eminence." 1 Most of the cardinals who reside in Rome have ecclesiastical benefices or are employed in the administration either spiritual or temporal; some, members of wealthy families, provide for their own support; and those who have not the same means receive from the government an annual allowance of $4,500 (subject to a deduction of 10 per cent.), besides perquisites of office. A cardinal must have a carriage and livery-servants. His general dress is a clerical suit of black, but his stockings are red, and his hat is bordered with red. On public occasions his dress consists of a redu tunic and mantle, a rochet or surplice of fine lace, and a red cap, or a red three-cornered hat when going out. If a cardinal is a memher of a religious order, he continues to wear his monastic color, and never uses silk. Thus pope Gregory XVI., who was a Camaldolese monk, was always, when a cardinal, dressed in white. The cardinals are appointed by the pope according to his own pleasure. When he presents a foreign prelate to the cardinalate, he sends him a mes HAT IN HAND. senger bearing the cap; the hat A CARDINAL IN FULL DRESS, WITH |