tain, discharges itself into the German ocean, about six miles below Dundee. In the Southern district we have the Forth, the Clyde, and the Tweed, and the numerous rivers which empty themselves into the Irish sea and Solway frith; the Ayr, the Girvan, the Southern Dee, the Nith, the Annan, and the Liddal. Besides these, there are numerous other rivers and streams of inferior note. The lakes or lochs of Scotland are numerous and extensive, and have been long celebrated for the grand and picturesque scenery by which their shores are embellished. Of these, the chief are Loch Lomond, Loch Aw, Loch Tay, Loch Ness, Loch Shin, Loch Lochay, Loch Naver, Loch Leven, &c. Scotland cannot at present boast of mines of the more precious metals; but considerable quantities of gold and silver have been found at different times. When James V. married the French king's daughter, a number of covered dishes, containing coins of Scottish gold, were presented to the guests by way of desert; and it appears, by the public records, that in one year there was coined in the mint of Scotland L.48,000 sterling of Scottish gold. No mines are now wrought solely for silver; but the lead mines are exceedingly rich in that metal. In the last century a rich silver mine was wrought in the Ochil hills, in the parish of Alva. Ironstone, iron ore, and septaria ironstone, are abundant. Copper has been discovered in many places. The other metallic substances hitherto discovered are cobalt,bismuth, manganese, wolfram, plumbago, and mercury; the latter in very small quantities. Coal is abundant in the Southern and Middle districts; it runs in a direction from north-east to southwest, and is to be found in great abundance in that track stretching across the island, and comprehended between the Ochil hills on the north, and the Lammermuir and Carrick hills on the south; but little or none has yet been discovered north of these hills. Limestone, freestone or sandstone, and slate, are found in every district, in the greatest abundance. Of late, too, some attention has been paid to the marbles, which prove but little inferior to those of Italy. Most of the gems and precious stones have been found in Scotland, the diamond excepted. Pearls are found in the great horse muscle (the mytilus cygnius and anatinus), a native of the northern rivers; they are also found in the common oysters and muscles, though of small size. The sapphire is found in several places, of different shades, from a deep red to a transparent white, and of equal hardness with the oriental. The topaz is found in abundance in the highest ground in Scotland, in the mountains of Marr, and in the extensive range which stretches towards Perth, In. verness, and Banff shires. It is the most brilliant of the gems hitherto found in Scotland, and of a size not as yet observed in any other country, not even in Siberia, Saxony, and Brazil. It occurs in rolled pieces, sometimes imbedded in the granite. They are most commonly of a very light green, or greenish white, and generally in hexahedral crystals. The ruby and hyacinth have been found near Ely, in Fifeshire, mixed with the sand on the se shore, and adhering to the rocks. They are in general of inferior lustre, and of small size. Emeralds are found in several places; and amethysts are pretty frequently met with, particularly in the mountain of Lochnagaraidh, in Aberdeenshire. Some of these are an inch in diameter, of good colour, and valued at 30 or 40 guineas each. Small specimens of the precious beryl, exactly similar to those of Siberia, have been found in the mountains of Marr, in Aberdeenshire. Garnets are found in many places of the Highlands, of good sizes, and in considerable quantities. Agates, under the various names of onyx, sardonyx, and pebble, are to be met with in every part of the country where basaltic rocks are found. Besides being found thickly strewed in the rock itself, they are to be met with in almost every brook in the vicinity of basaltic rock, from which, in the course of time, they have been washed by the rains. The Scotch pebbles are of many beautiful hues; blue and white, red and white, and frequently to be met with of all these colours, blended together in veins, and in every gradation of shade. Although jasper is so abundant as to be included among the building stones, yet there are many delicate specimens to be met with, particularly in Ayrshire, which, from the fineness of the texture, and elegant variety in the colour, are exalted into the class of gems, and cut into seals, ear-rings, suuff-boxes, and other ornaments. The rock crystal is commonly denominated cairngorum, from the mountain of that name in Banffshire. But rock crystal is found in every mountain in the primary districts of Scotland, and in pecu liar abundance on the mountains of Aberdeen and Banff shires. The colours of these crystals are yellow of different shades, and clove brown, approaching to black. The deeper yellow specimens sell high; and are commonly, but improperly, termed by the jewellers topazes. The clove brown colours, more peculiarly termed cairngorums, are also valued in jewellery; and the dealers are said to possess the art of making these dark colours assume lighter shades, by exposing them to a considerable heat very gradually raised. Chalcedony is found in Fife, equal in hardness and water to the oriental. Most of the northern and southern mountains are composed of granite: that of Ben-Nevis is said to be equally beautiful with the Egyptian. At Portsoy is found that singular kind of granite called Moses' Tables, which, when polished, resembles the Hebrew characters on a white ground. Besides these, there are various other rare and curious fossils. It may be proper to mention the frequent marks of volcanic fire which many of the mountains exhibit, as well as the basaltic columns at Staffa, and at other parts. In a country so abounding with metallic ores, many of the springs must necessarily have a mineral impregnation. The chalybeate springs are almost innumerable, particularly at Moffat, Peterhead, Dunse, Aberbrothock, &c. Sulphureous springs are also found in the neighbourhood of Moffat, and at St Bernard's well, near Edinburgh. Many of the springs also hold some neutral salt dissolved, as at Pitcaithly. Wherever the spring proceeds from a bed of limestone, it acquires a petrifying property, of which there are numerous examples at the Dropping-Cave of Slains in Aberdeenshire, and in many places in Lanark and Ayr shires, &c. The ancient forests of Scotland have been greatly diminished in extent. Of the ancient Caledonian forests, the most considerable remains are in the districts of Marr and Glentanar in Rannoch, in Glenmore and Strathspey, and in Alfarig in Ross-shire. The fir is the most common wood; but the oak and other deciduous trees are not wanting. Some of these forests extend 30 or 40 miles in length, and great quantities of wood are floated down the Spey, the Dee, and the Tummel. The nature of the soil is various; in general, however, it is inferior in point of fertility, to England; or perhaps the difference may arise not so much from the soil, as from the northern situation and mountainous character of the country. There are many vallies or straths, even in the Highlands, which are exceedingly productive; and the soil in the three Lothians, Berwickshire, Fifeshire, the Carses of Stirling and Falkirk, Stratherne, the Carse of Gowrie, the province of Moray, &c. contain excellent land, and are as productive as any in the island. In the lower districts of Scotland agriculture has reached a great degree of perfection; and in the Middle district, southward of the Grampian mountains, and also in the Southern districts, the surface of the country has everywhere assumed a most marked and visible improvement. The soil of Scotland produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, pease, beans, hay, potatoes, turnips, &c.; flax, and hemp, but in no great quantities, nor does the soil appear to be well qualified for their production; and, in general, all the sorts of crops which are raised in the southern part of the island. Horticulture is making rapid increase in every part. Apples and other fruits are produced in abundance. Of late many extensive tracks of waste land have been planted with wood, and the success attending this species of improvement evinces that the soil and climate are well adapted for rearing forest trees, particularly in the interior parts of the country. The Scotch fir is the most common pine in the Scottish plantations; the larch has been lately introduced, and is a valuable acquisition, not only for the value of the wood, but also for its more rapid growth. Ash, elm, plane, beech, oak, laburnum, and a great variety of other kinds, are intermixed in the plantations, and have a fine effect, by diversifying the shades, and relieving the eye from the dull sameness which always disgusts. The juniper shrub grows naturally on the hills, and the whortle or blae berries grow on the highest mountains, in the greatest abundance. Analogous to vegetable productions is the alga marina, or sea weed, which grows in great luxuriance on the rocky coasts, and constitutes a valuable article of commerce, from the burning of it into kelp. Owing to its situation in the midst of a great ocean, and in a high northern latitude, the climate of Scotland is extremely variable. From its insular situation, however, the cold in winter is not so intense as in similar latitudes on the continent; and in summer the heat, especially on the coast, is moderated by the sea breezes. In winter it is seldom so cold as in the south of England, or on the Continent; but that dreary season is, on the other hand, more protracted than in those countries. The greatest height of the thermometer that has ever yet been observed is 92° Fahrenheit, and the lowest at Edinburgh, 31st December 1783, is 3° below zero. Its ordinary range is from 84° to 8°, though it seldom maintains these extremes for any length of time. The annual average temperature may be estimated at from 45° to 47°. Like most other mountainous countries, it is subject to rain. The general average quantity of rain that falls appears to be from 30 to 31 inches. The western coasts, owing to the general prevalence of the west winds, which bring humidity from the Atlantic ocean, is more liable to rain than the eastern shores, which are washed by the German ocean. neral the proportion of rain is one-fifth more. It has been estimated that it rained or snowed on the west coast for 205 days, and that the weather was fair for 160. On In ge In the high latitude of Scotland, the winds are, as might be expected, extremely variable, both in their force and in their direction; and, in the more elevated districts, this character of variableness is greatly heightened, by the interference of lofty mountains, with their interjacent glens or vallies. The glens serve, in these situations, as funnels, to receive the blast which was proceeding, perhaps by many points, in a different course, but which, being arrested by the mountains, is now diverted into the vallies, and, gathering strength from the interruption which it had met with, sweeps along with redoubled fury. On the west coast of Scotland it has been repeatedly asserted by intelligent observers, that the wind blows, especially along the whole extent of the western coast of Scotland, for two-thirds of the year, from a southerly point. These southerly winds bring genial warmth and moisture from the constantly equable temperature of the Atlantic. They prevail chiefly through the summer and autumn, and too frequently prove injurious to the operations of the latter. North or north-east winds appear to prevail, especially on the castern coast, through somewhat less than one-third of the year. They are cold, and ungenial to animal and vegetable life; they generally prevail in the months of March and April, frequently extending into those of May and June, and occurring indeed generally throughout the summer. South-west winds prevail nearly two-thirds of the year; hence trees not sheltered incline to the north-east. Owing chiefly to the vicinity of the sea, the air in general is more pure, temperate, and salubrious, than might be expected in so northern a climate. The frost is not so intense, nor the snow of so great depth, as on the adjacent continent of the same latitude, except in some inland districts of the Highlands. The wild animals of Scotland are the fox, the badger, the otter, the wild-cat, the hedge-hog; these are now becoming scarce: the stag, the wild roe, the hare, the rabbit, the weasle, the mole, and other small quadrupeds. But there is proof that some others have been inhabitants of the country, which are now extinct, viz. the bison or wild ox, the wolf, and the beaver. The domestic animals are the same as those of England; but the native breed of black cattle and sheep is considerably different, being smaller in size, but reputed to afford more delicious food. As one of the domestic animals peculiar to Scotland, the colley, or true shepherd's dog, may be mentioned, of which there are many of an unmixed breed. Of the feathered tribe, pheasants are to be found in the woods, though scarce; also that beautiful bird called the capercailzie, or cock of the wood, now be come exceedingly rare; the ptarmigan, the black game, and grouse, are abundant in the heathy mountains; and in the low grounds are partridges, snipes, plovers, &c. Scotland has also most of the English singing birds, except the nightingale. The aquatic fowls, as being more common in the islands, are enumerated in the work under the ar ticle Orkney, St Kilda, &c. The domestic fowls are the same as those of England. The fish are the same which are usually found in the North sea, such as herrings, mackarel, haddocks, sturgeon, cod, whitings, turbot, skate, &c. The rivers teem with abundance of trout, salmon, eels, &c. and the lakes abound with pike and perch. The coasts are abundantly stocked with shell-fish, as lobsters, oysters, &c. Whales are sometimes thrown upon the coasts of Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides; and, besides other fish which are caught for their oil, we may mention the cearban or sun-fish, the fishery of which is prosecuted with considerable success on the western coasts. Scotland is not more remarkable for its skilful agriculture, than for the judgment with which its industry has been directed towards all the finer manufactures. For a considerable time after the union with England, this country appears to have made little progress in manufactures; and it was not till about the year 1750, that a spirit of enterprise and ingenuity was excited, which has ever since continued, and has carried the country to such perfection in all the great branches of its industry. Scotland at present carries on almost every species of manufacture. Flax and hemp are manufactured into a variety of fabrics, such as sheetings, osuaburghs, bagging, and canvas, which are made chiefly in Forfarshire, and are finally exported, the first of these at least, to the West Indies, and the last is purchased for the use of the British navy. The manufacture of finer linen has fallen off in Scotland, having been superseded partly by the im portation of Irish cloth, and partly by the substitution of cotton manufactures. The spinning of flax by the hand used to be an important branch of industry, as it gave constant employment to the females of Scotland, and they were enabled at home, and cherish ing at the same time domestic habits, to prosecute this occupation. This simple mode of spinning flax has now, however, been superseded by the use of complicated machinery, by which means the females have been deprived of an employment which enabled them in private to gain a subsistence by their own simple and unaided industry. They are now thrown out of employment, and out of bread, unless they choose to enter into those large manufactories, where they must all work in common, men and women being indiscriminately mixed, with such opportunities of intercourse as quickly leads to a general dissolution of morals. If, therefore, wealth has been acquired to the country by these manufacturing establishments, morality has been lost, and the people have been degraded from the virtuous simplicity of their former habits. These spinning machines have now been generally introduced in the counties of Aberdeen, Mearns, Fife, and Angus, and they have entirely superseded the spinning by the hand. The cotton manufactures have also been carried, by means of machinery, to an astonishing degree of extent and perfection in Scotland; and if we trace the raw material through all its different stages, till it issues from the hand of the workmen fit for use, we shall be surprised at the ingenuity with which all the complicated powers of mechanism are made to aid the industry of man. While the English manufacturer made for the market the coarser kinds of cloth, such as calicoes, jeans, fustians, cordu roys, and other stout fabrics, the attention of the Scots was early directed to those of a finer quality. Muslins and other fabrics were soon very perfectly executed. To these have been added brocades, lappets of all sorts, imitation shawls, plain and Linoe gauzes, spidered, seeded, and numerous species of draw-loom, and other work of the most fanciful, delicate, and ornamental kinds. Many of these fabrics, with the curious mechanism by which they are executed, are exclusively of Scottish invention. Immense quantities of cambrics, shirtings, sheetings, tweels, stripes, checks, pullicates, ginghams, shawls, &c. are manufactured in Scotland in a superior manner. Within these few years also cotton has been manufactured into thread, which has become an article of general use, and of which large quantities are exported to the West Indies. Glasgow, Paisley, and the surrounding districts, are the chief seats of the cotton manufacture. Calico printing in all its branches is also carried to a great extent. The great iron-works established in Scotland deserve particular attention, and that at Carron, near Falkirk, is the largest manufactory in Europe. Iron is not only extracted from the ore, but it is finished into every variety of form. The quantity of iron smelted at Carron is about 6500 tons yearly, and about 2000 people are constantly employed; and from all the different works in Scotland, above 30,000 tons of iron are annually extracted, and there are besides about 40 or 50 foundries in different parts of the country. The application of iron, in its three different states, of pig-iron, malleable or bar-iron, and steel, is so very extensive and minute, that it is impossible to ascertain either the extent or value of the articles fabricated. Bar-iron and steel are forged by blacksmiths into all sorts of culinary and other domestic utensils; agricultural implements; ships' anchors, bolts, &c.; boilers for steam-engines, and other purposes; axles for machinery, &c.; and many other articles of great utility. A considerable proportion of Scottish ironmongery is exported to America, the West Indies, and other British colonies, such as anchors, bolts, waggon axles, sugar-mill gudgeons, wedges, and various articles of mill and steam-engine work, with domestic utensils of every kind, as well as hoes, axes, adzes, hammers, and similar tools. Almost all kinds of articles into which timber is manufactured are produced in great plenty and perfection in Scotland; and since the introduction of machinery to such an extent, a numerous class of workmen are occupied in making and upholding the different machinery which is at work. Some idea may be formed of the number of workmen employed, and the value of the articles they make, when it is known that in Scotland there are about 3600 water-mills, 5000 thrashingmills, above 100 wind-mills, and from 350 to 400 steam-engines, employed in preparing flour, meal, barley, snuff, bark, and lint; for teazing, carding, roving, and spinning wool, flax, and cotton; for preparing dyestuffs, bleaching salts, paints, fire-clay, &c.; for winding, weaving, tambouring, printing, washing, wauking, calendering, &c.; for boring, blowing, hammering, &c.; and for raising water and minerals. The manufac ture of machinery is therefore a most important branch of Scottish industry, as not only all the internal mechanism necessary for these operations is to be made and fitted up, but also the primary movements, as the water-wheels, wind-mills, and steam-engines themselves; and the whole must be upheld in proper working order. Coachmaking, musical instrument-making, &c. are carried on in all the principal towns; ship-building also forms a most important branch of national industry, and dock-yards for building and repairing vessels are established in the different seaports. The an nual average of the number of vessels belonging to the ports of Scotland, amounts to 2509. There are manufactories of glass for all the different sorts of bottle, window and flint-glass; also of soap, candles, and starch; salt, &c. There are tanneries and breweries in all of the considerable towns, and distilleries for spirits in different parts, on an extensive scale; and it may be generally remarked, that almost all articles of ordinary use are manufactured in Scotland. The different fisheries have been prosecuted with great industry and success. The whale fishery to Davis's Straits and Greenland at present employs a greater number of ships than at any former period. The white fishery is also prosecuted with great industry along the Moray frith, Shetland, and the Western islands, which bring profitable returns. The herring fishery is carried on along the whole coast of the kingdom with great success; as also the salmon fishery in all the different rivers. Scotland formerly enjoyed but a small share of foreign trade. The exports were chiefly wool, skins, hides, and other raw materials, which were exchanged for corn, wine, and spiceries. Both the extent of exports and imports must have been very limited in those times, at least in Scotch vessels; for the whole shipping in the 13th century did not exceed 20 sloops, exclusive of the galleys and barks belonging to the Hebrides. In the time of Cromwell, the shipping of Scotland consisted of only 93 vessels, carrying 2724 tons; and 18 barks. Soon after, however, her foreign trade with the northern and eastern states of Europe, began to increase; and the Dutch cultivated a friendly connection with the Scots, chiefly for the conveniency of prosecuting the herring fishery on the coast of Scotland, in which they were deeply and profitably engaged. About the middle of the last century, an extensive commercial intercourse was carried on from the ports on the eastern coast of Scotland, to Holland, Norway, Sweden, and the different states on the shores of the Baltic. This trade has greatly increased of late years. The imports principally consist of flax, hemp, yarn, linen, iron, corn, wood, tallow, and other commodities produced in these countries; and in return, colonial produce, cotton goods, and other manufactured articles are exported. The trade between Scotland and Russia, including that of Archangel, forms the most considerable branch of the commerce of the eastern coast; and the chief shipping ports are Leith, Dundee, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen, Peterhead, Banff, and Inverness. The trade with Spain, Portugal, and the Mediterranean, is carried on from Leith and other ports; and the connection with Canada extends to all the most considerable towns on the east coast of Scotland. The commerce of the west coast centres almost entirely in the Clyde, which is the grand emporium of the American, West Indian, and South American trade. From Greenock a constant intercourse is carried on with the West Indies, with the British colonies in North America, with the United States, and latterly with the Brazils and South America. Several vessels have also sailed from that port, to carry on the trade to India, since, by the relaxation of the company's monopoly in 1814, it was partially thrown open to the merchants of this country. From the eastern ports a trade is carried on with the northern countries lying round the Baltic sea, as also generally with the continent of Europe; and the coasting trade with London is now placed under admirable regulations, fast sailing vessels being regularly dispatched from Leith, Aberdeen, and the other ports on the east coast, which, in spite of winds and weather, make the voyage with surprising quickness and regularity. On the friths of Forth and Clyde, and also on the Tay, steam vessels now regularly ply; and there is little doubt that this important improvement will ere long be extended to the coasting trade. The following is a statement of the revenue for fourteen years: 1801, L.1,985,794 7 11 1813, 4,383,751 7 10 4,483,014 10 10 The inhabitants of Scotland may be divided into two great classes, viz. Highlanders and Lowlanders. The language, dress, and customs of these two classes are very different; the Highlanders,in their language and other particulars, resembling the Irish and the inhabitants of Wales, while those of the low country differ very little from the English. The language of the Highlanders is that species of the Celtic called in Scot land Gaelic or Earse, which seems to be the same, or nearly so, which is spoken by the Welch, and the inhabitants in the interior and northern parts of Ireland. The ancient dress of the Highlanders is fast giving way to a more modern costume, although it is still retained in many places, and often worn by gentlemen on particular |