POISCHWITZ, a town of Prussian Silesia, 2 miles from Jauer. Population 1600. POISON COVE, a cove on the north-west coast of North America, so called by captain Vancouver, because muscles were found in it of a poisonous quality, and by eating of which one of his seamen died. POISSINE, a small town of Switzerland, on an arm of the Reuss, which falls into the lake of Neufchatel. Here are large cotton manufactures. POISSONS, a town of France, department of the Upper Marne, on the Rongeaut, with 1800 inhabitants. It has considerable iron works, and is 4 miles E. S. E. of Joinville, and 14 S. E. of Vassy. POISSY, a town of France, situated on the Seine. It has 2500 inhabitants, and large weekly cattle markets, from which Paris is in a great measure supplied. It gave birth to Louis XI. 9 miles N. W. of Versailles. POITIERS, a large town in the west of France, the capital of the department of La Vienne, situated on rising ground, near the river Clain. It might be ranked among the first cities of France, if its population were at all proportioned to its extent; but a great portion of the space inclosed by its walls is occupied by gardens and cultivated fields, so that the total population does not exceed 21,300. It is divided into four quarters, all built in a mean and antiquated style. The streets are for the most part steep, winding, and ill paved. It has several squares, the finest of which is the Place Royale, situated in the centre of the town, and surrounded with good buildings. Poitiers has no public edifices worth notice, except its churches. The cathedral is in the Gothic style, and wants only a little more elevation. Of the other churches, the most interesting is that of St Hilaire. To the antiquary the town presents several Roman antiquities, viz. some arches of an aqueduct, the remains of an amphitheatre, and a few scattered fragments of a triumphal arch. Its literary institutions are a university on a small scale, a royal college, or provincial high school, and an athenæum. It has also a public library, and a botanical garden. These, together with agreeable walks and commodious baths, give a certain degree of attraction to the place. Its trade is very limited, being confined to a few products of the surrounding country. Its only manufactures consist of woollen caps and stockings, leather and gloves. It is the seat of a royal court, and of the different branches of the departmental administration; also the see of a bishop. The name of Poiters has long been familiar to the British, from the celebrat ed victory of the son of Edward III., surnamed the Black Prince, gained over the French on 13th September 1354. 85 miles S. S. W. of Tours, and 250 S. W. of Paris. Long. 0. 20. 43. E. Lat. 46. 35. N. POITOU, the name, before the revolution, of a large province of France, bounded by Anjou on the north, Saintonge on the south, and the ocean on the west. It was divided into Upper and Lower Poitou, and was about 210 miles in length, by 70 in breadth It is now divided into three departments; La Vienne, the Deux Sevres, and La Vendee. For a more detailed account of the province, see these departments respectively. Poix, a town of France, department of the Somme, situated in a hollow on the small river Poix. Population 1100. 17 miles S. W. of Amiens. POKETALICO, a river of the United States, in Virginia, which runs into the Kenhawa, Long. 81. 51. W. Lat. 38. 16. N. POKROUSKAIA, a fortress of Tobolsk, in Asiatic Russia, 48 miles W. of Omsk. POKROUSKOI, a village of Asiatic Russia, in the government of Irkoutsk, 32 miles S. W. of Yakoutsk. POKROW, a small town of European Russia, in the government of Vladimir. It is the chief place of a district, and stands 62 miles E. of Moscow. POL, ST, a town of France, department of the Pas de Calais, on the Ternoise. It has a considerable traffic in tobacco and wool; and its mineral waters are said to be little inferior to those of Spa. Population 3000. 22 miles N. W. of Arras. POL, ST, a town of France, department of the Eastern Pyrenees, on the river Aigle. Population 1300. 24 miles N. W. of Per pignan. POL, ST, a small but well built town of Spain, on the coast of Catalonia. POLA, an ancient town of Austrian Illyria, in the peninsula of Istria, situated on an eminence on the gulf of Venice. It was formerly a considerable city, and is still a bishop's see; but its population is dwindled down to 900, not a tenth of what it was in the time of the Romans. Its harbour, however, is excellent, and is sufficient to contain a large fleet. POLA, or OTEWHEI, one of the Navigator's islands, in the South Pacific ocean, which is remarkable for its beauty and good cultivation. It is separated from Oyolava by a channel about 4 leagues wide. The south side is inaccessible to ships, but on the west coast is less rugged. Long. 172. 20. W. Lat. 13. 52. S. POLA, CAPE ST, a promontory of Spain, on the coast of Valencia. Long. 0. 38. W. Lat. 38. 13. N. POLAND, a large country of continental Europe, bounded on the west by Germany, on the east by Russia, and on the south by Hungary, Walachia, and Moldavia. The form of Poland, exclusive of Lithuania, is that of an oblong, extending in length from east to west; but no country in Europe has undergone greater changes of territory at different periods of its history. After the annexation of Lithuania, in the end of the 14th century, the territory subject to the crown of Poland comprised an extent of 284,000 square miles, being nearly a third larger than France. This great track was divided into the following provinces, viz. Great and Little Poland to the west; Masovia and Podlachia in the centre; with Volhynia, Podolia, and the Ukraine to the east. The great duchy of Lithuania, much larger than any of these provinces, extended to the north-east. The inferior divisions consisted of palatinates and starostys. The palatinates were, for the whole country, 31 in number; and though by no means uniform in extent, were in general equal to four, five, or six English counties. The population of the whole of Poland, though not exactly ascertained, is about 15,000,000, of which the far greater proportion live in the country, the towns being both few and small for so extensive a kingdom. The principal are, Warsaw, 70,000 45,000 42,000 26,000 25,000 24,000 16,000 Charkov, 15,000 Mohilev, 12,500 Vitepek, 12,000 Lissa, 7,600 Rawitz, 7,400 Population. 29,000 1,800,000 30,000 3,500,000 the portion restored to square Miles. 284,000 15,000,000 Of these territories, the Prussian part is in the north-west, the Austrian in the south, the new kingdom of Poland in the middle, while the Russian acquisitions, larger than all the rest collectively, occupy all the country to the east, extending in a vast oblong, from Lithuania in the north, to the Ukraine in the south. The follow ing account is to be understood as appli cable to Poland in all its extent. Face of the Country, and Climate.—The word Polen, or Poland, signifies a plain, a name well suited to the face of the country, which is almost everywhere level, and in many places marshy. All the great rivers, except the Niemen, run in shallow channels, and overflow their banks. After a rainy season, whole provinces appear inundated, and the waters of distant streams flow into each other. The only great mountains are the Carpathians, which form the boundary between Poland and Hun gary. A range far inferior in height and Square Miles. Population. length, advances from Silesia into a part of 64,000 4,800,000 the south-west of Poland. In the rest of 52,000 3,500,000 the country, the ground is highest along 168,000 6,700,000 a curved line extending throughout the middle of the kingdom, from Hungary to Lithuania (from south-west to north-east), and indicated, not by conspicuous elevations, but by the course of the waters, all rivers on the west side flowing to the Baltic, and 284,000 15,000,000 all on the east flowing to the Euxine. Of State of Cultivation. This is extremely backward throughout almost the whole of Poland. The use of manure is in a manner unknown, the common practice being to cultivate a field till it be exhausted, and then to abandon it. The plough does little more than scratch the surface of the ground; and the grass being but partly turned in, keeps its place among the corn, so that after harvest, the reaped fields have more the appearance of meadows than of stubble. The pastures are still more neglected; and water is allowed to stagnate on them till they are converted into marshes. To clear a space of wood, it is customary to make incisions quite around the trees, at the height of three feet, to prevent them from drawing nourishment from the ground. They dry up in consequence, are blown down by the first high wind, and allowed to rot on the ground. Notwithstanding this wretched state of culture, such is the productiveness of the soil, and the paucity of consumers, that the export of corn is computed to average 4,000,000 of English quarters. The export of cattle is also considerable; and it is said, that in some of the remote uncultivated parts, herds of wild cattle, and even horses, are to be found, as in South America. Character and Manners.The Poles were originally a tribe of Sclavonians, settled on the banks of the Danube; but they removed at an early period to the Vistula, where they became intermingled with the Goths. The noblemen of this country, though often vain and credulous, Every estate has its Religion and Morals.-The reformation was introduced into Poland at an early period, and made a rapid progress among all ranks. The number of Protestants became in many parts equal to that of the Catholics; and in 1550 a complete equality was established among all classes of Christians. Towards the end of that century appeared the Socinians, who were permitted to live in tranquillity for some time, but were afterwards driven to abjuration or exile, toleration being confined to the Trinitarians. In the mean time the church of Rome had the art to procure an act, which confirmed to the Catholic clergy the permanent possession of their vast property and influence throughout Poland; and the preponderance which naturally followed, enabled that party to narrow the range of toleration. In 1716 the Protestants and members of the Greek church were declared ineligible to public offices; and in 1733 and 1736 these political and tyrannical acts unfortunately received a farther extension. In 1766 a partial relaxation of the prohibitions was obtained by the interference of Russia, Prussia, England, and Denmark; and the partition that ensued altered the face of affairs as far as they regarded the Russian and Prussian divisions of Poland, in both of which the Catholics found it necessary to sue for that toleration which they had refused to others. Before this change, the usurpations of the Catholic clergy had gone beyond all bounds. The tithes in some parts were said to be more nearly a fifth than a tenth of the produce. In other parts the lands were deeply mortgaged to the church for loans, and the country was burdened with 30 abbeys, 49 Jesuits' colleges, 90 convents, and 579 monasteries. The pope was not only the head of the Catholics, but interfered in the appointment of the bishops and archbishops, so far as regarded their confirmation. The nuncio held a separate court for the decision of ecclesiastical cases. As to morals, divorces have long been too frequent in Poland; but the expence of the process confines them in a great measure to the higher ranks. The members of the Greek church are on the increase in the provinces acquired by Russia. The Jews occupy a conspicuous place in the population of Poland. The influence of female favourite at court, belonging to their nation, obtained for them important privileges several centuries ago; and after the decline of the regal power, they were supported in them by the nobles, from a sense of the beneficial effects of their industry to the landholder. They are the men of business for almost the whole country; the current money of the kingdom is chiefly in their hands; and a great proportion of the land is mortgaged to them. They are at liberty to exercise any trade or profession, and were formerly exempt from several of the taxes. Some of them have a fair title to the name of merchants; but the majority are mean and fraudulent, it being remarked that a law suit seldom occurs in Poland in which a Jew is not a party, and seldom a theft of which a Jew is not the instigator. Education and Language.-The Russians and the Poles are the two most illiterate nations in Europe, and it would be difficult to say which is the more ignorant of the two. The Poles, if not immersed in such darkness as their eastern neighbours, have been at no pains to receive improvement from their neighbours; while the Russians have shewn themselves zealous disciples of the Germans. Universities were established in Poland a considerable time before the partition, viz. at Cracow, Wilna, and Posen; but, strange as it may seem, there were no schools, till the different governments among whom the country was divided, erected a certain number in each province. Additional universities have also been established at Lemberg and Warsaw. The Polish language is a dialect of the Sclavonic; and though less unpleasant to the ear than might be imagined, from the number of consonants sometimes employed to convey simple sounds, it is neither harmonious nor copious. The general use of Latin in literary composition, and even in the conversation of the higher ranks, has prevented the improvement of the vernacu far tongue; but some works composed in it during the last century, are said not to be destitute of merit. The Poles have great facility in learning foreign languages, a young man at the age of 20 often speaking three or four with much propriety of accent. Administration of Justice.-It would be difficult to express, in appropriate terms, the gross abuses which prevailed in the execution of the laws in Poland. The judges were chosen with very little attention to character or ability; justice was sold to the highest bidder; and no cause, however good, had the smallest chance of success, unless supported by money. The courts were not unfrequently held in the midst of entertainments; and it was formerly neces sary to enact, that no sentences should be valid which were pronounced after dinner. Four years was the common term of a suit between debtor and creditor; but at the partition of Poland, many actions had been pending for sixty years, without the smallest appearance of their coming to a decision. Since then, improvements have been introduced, but their progress must be slow, especially in the part occupied by Russia, the courts of justice in that country being in almost as bad a state as in Poland. Constitution. The crown of Poland has $6 POLAND. not at all times been elective. Piast, chosen duke of Poland about the year 840, was the founder of a dynasty which continued to succeed to the crown by hereditary right, and governed Poland with absolute sway during five centuries. owed its origin to Boleslas I., who reigned The senate in the 11th century. In the 14th century, after the extinction of the dynasty of Piast, the nobility availed themselves of the weakness of a female reign, to appropriate a large portion of power to their own body, and insisted on the nation being taxed only by its representatives; hence the origin of the diet. So far the proceedings of the senate were equitable: but they afterwards went on from one encroachment to another, till at last they made the crown elective, limited its power over the armed forces, and disqualified all peasants, as well as most inhabitants of towns, from possessing landed property. Finally, in 1501, they in a nanner extinguished the executive power, by deciding that the king could determine 10 affair of consequence without the unanianous consent of the diet. After this, all was insecurity and confusion. This constitution is now abolished, and scarcely deserves to be put on record. It has been briefly defined the government of half a million of men of property, under the general title of nobles, over a million of Jewish traders, and thirteen millions of slaves. In the smaller or ordinary diets, the nobles of cach district elected their representatives, who seldom exceeded 200, but in the grand diets for the election of the king, the number of members was immense, as every man bearing the title of noble had a right to appear in person, and to vote. This vast assembly met armed and on horseback, in a plain adjoining the village of Wohla, in the neighbourhood of Warsaw. It was composed of the senate, of the representatives of districts, and of the clergy, and finally, of the nobles, who appeared in person. Foreign ambassadors generally attended, and bribery and corruption were the usual means of procuring votes, even among the clergy, who opened the diet, by imploring the assistance of divine inspiration. At first the proceedings went on with considerable regularity; but every member of the diet was entitled to call for a division of that assembly on any question, a privilege which, in those meetangs of unenlightened and impatient men, was often the source of great confusion; but the grand impediment to business consisted in the power inherent in any representative, of putting an end to the leliberations, and even to the existence of the diet, by a mere protest against its proceedings. This singular and ab surd practice necessarily engendered the ment, too little attention has been paid to venue of Poland arose from various sources; or |